The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed the "Scramble for Africa," a period of intense invasion, conquest, and colonization by Western European powers. Driven by the Second Industrial Revolution and the era of "New Imperialism," this scramble dramatically reshaped the African continent. By 1870, only 10% of Africa was formally under European control, but this would soon change drastically.
Map of Africa in 1913 showing colonial possessions
The Scramble for Africa: Motivations and Technological Advancements
Initially, European businessmen established small trading posts along the coasts of Africa, rarely venturing inland. They primarily traded with locals, and as late as the 1870s, Europeans controlled only about 10% of the continent, mainly near the coasts. Key holdings included Angola and Mozambique (Portugal), the Cape Colony (United Kingdom), and Algeria (France).
Technological advancements played a crucial role in facilitating European expansion. Industrialization led to rapid improvements in transportation and communication, such as steamships, railways, and telegraphs. Medical advances, particularly medicines for tropical diseases, also helped mitigate the adverse effects of these diseases.
Sub-Saharan Africa, largely untouched by "informal imperialism," attracted business entrepreneurs. Surplus capital was often invested overseas due to the availability of cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials like ivory, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin. Pro-imperialist lobbyists argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve problems of low prices and overproduction.
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The vast interior between Egypt and the gold and diamond-rich Southern Africa held strategic value in securing overseas trade routes. Britain, under political pressure to build lucrative markets in India, Malaya, Australia, and New Zealand, sought to control the Suez Canal, completed in 1869, as a key waterway between East and West.
The acquisition of military and naval bases for strategic purposes and the exercise of power was another significant factor in the scramble for African territory. Growing navies and steam-powered ships required coaling stations and ports for maintenance. Colonies were seen as assets in balance of power negotiations and as sources of military power, with Britain and France utilizing soldiers from British India and North Africa in their colonial wars.
Key Players and Events
In the early 1880s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza explored the Congo River region for France, while Henry Morton Stanley explored it for Leopold II of Belgium. France occupied Tunisia in May 1881, potentially influencing Italy to join the German-Austrian Dual Alliance in 1882, forming the Triple Alliance. The same year, Britain occupied Egypt, which then ruled over Sudan and parts of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. In 1884, Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons, and South West Africa under its protection, and France occupied Guinea.
Germany, initially not a colonial power, unified under Prussian rule in 1871. Otto von Bismarck, initially disliking colonies, eventually yielded to popular and elite pressure in the 1880s. Pan-Germanism became linked to imperialist drives, leading to the creation of the Deutscher Kolonialverein and the adoption of Weltpolitik by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890.
Germany became the third-largest colonial power in Africa, with possessions including Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika. Germany attempted to isolate France in 1905 with the First Moroccan Crisis.
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Italy, after unifying in 1861, sought to expand its territory, taking parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882. By 1889-90, Italy occupied territory on the Horn of Africa, forming Italian Somaliland. In 1895, the First Italo-Ethiopian War broke out, resulting in the defeat of Italian troops due to Ethiopian numerical superiority and support from Russia and France. In 1911, Italy acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica from the Ottoman Empire, forming Italian Libya.
The Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1935-1936), led by Benito Mussolini, resulted in the occupation of Ethiopia, the last independent African territory besides Liberia.
Ethiopia's Resistance and Expansion
The Ethiopian Empire, historically known as Abyssinia, existed from around 1270 until the 1974 coup. Founded by Yekuno Amlak, who claimed descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, the empire expanded under Emperors like Amda Seyon I and Dawit I.
The empire faced threats from the Muslim Adal Sultanate, culminating in the jihad of Imam Ahmed Gran in the 16th century. Although weakened, Ethiopia repulsed Ottoman invasion attempts in the north. In the 17th century, Emperor Fasilides established Gondar as the new capital, marking a golden age.
Emperor Tewodros II reunified the empire in the 19th century, and his successor Yohannes IV fought against the Egyptians and Mahdists. Emperor Menelik II expanded Ethiopia to its modern territorial boundaries by 1898, confronting Italy's expansion in the north.
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After the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Italian East Africa was established, merging Ethiopia with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. During World War II, the Italians were driven out with British help, and Ethiopia became a founding member of the United Nations.
Yekuno Amlak rose to power in 1270 AD, claiming descent from the last king of Aksum and King Solomon. He maintained friendly relations with Muslims, establishing ties with neighboring dynasties and describing himself as a protector of Muslims in Abyssinia.
Under Amda Seyon I, campaigns against Muslim enemies shifted the balance of power in favor of Christians. He threatened to divert the Nile's flow if the Sultan of Egypt did not stop persecuting Copts. His conquests significantly expanded the Ethiopian Empire.
Dawit I invaded the Ifat Sultanate after it resisted Ethiopian hegemony. The Adal Sultanate was later established, leading to conflicts with Christian territories, prompting Emperor Yeshaq I to defend his eastern territories.
Zara Yaqob launched campaigns against pagan worship and centralized administration. He protested the persecution of Egyptian Copts and defeated the Adalite Sultan at the Battle of Gomit. He also founded Debre Berhan after seeing a miraculous light.
Eskender invaded Adal and sacked its capital, Dakkar, but was later defeated. In 1517, Mahfuz invaded Ethiopian territory but was killed in combat.
Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi rose to power in Adal, invading Ethiopia in 1529 with advanced weaponry. Emperor Gelawdewos resisted the invasion, and with Portuguese support, won a major victory at the Battle of Wayna Daga.
The Ottoman Empire occupied parts of Ethiopia from 1557, establishing Habesh Eyalet. Emperor Sarsa Dengel's victory in 1589 contained them on a narrow coastline strip. Oromo migrations occurred during the same period, leading to changes in the empire's organization.
In 1636, Emperor Fasilides founded Gondar as a permanent capital, leading to achievements in Ethiopian art and architecture.
Morocco's Encounters with European Powers
During the Scramble for Africa, Morocco faced significant challenges from European powers, particularly France and Spain. The country's strategic location and resources made it a target for colonial ambitions. The First Moroccan Crisis in 1905, instigated by Germany, highlighted the tensions between European powers vying for influence in Morocco.
Ultimately, Morocco became a French protectorate in 1912, with Spain controlling certain regions. This marked the end of Morocco's independence and the beginning of a period of colonial rule that lasted until the mid-20th century.
Comparisons and Contrasts
While both Ethiopia and Morocco faced European imperial ambitions, their experiences differed significantly. Ethiopia, with its strong central government and military, successfully resisted complete colonization, maintaining its independence except for a brief period of Italian occupation. In contrast, Morocco succumbed to colonial rule, becoming a French protectorate.
Ethiopia's internal dynamics, including its expansion under Menelik II and its interactions with various ethnic groups and neighboring kingdoms, played a crucial role in shaping its resistance to European powers. Morocco's internal political struggles and its proximity to Europe made it more vulnerable to colonial encroachment.
The interactions of both Ethiopia and Morocco with European powers during the Scramble for Africa had lasting impacts on their political, economic, and social development. Ethiopia's successful resistance became a symbol of African independence and inspired anti-colonial movements across the continent. Morocco's experience under colonial rule shaped its post-independence trajectory and its relationship with Europe.
The legacy of the Scramble for Africa continues to influence the dynamics between African nations and European powers today. Understanding the historical context of this period is essential for comprehending the challenges and opportunities facing Africa in the 21st century.
How was an Entire Continent Annexed in 1 year? - The Scramble of Africa
| Country | Colonial Status | Key Events |
|---|---|---|
| Ethiopia | Resisted colonization (except for brief Italian occupation) | Battles against Adal Sultanate, resistance to Italian invasion, expansion under Menelik II |
| Morocco | French Protectorate (1912) | First Moroccan Crisis, division between French and Spanish control |
