Ethiopia's resistance to European colonization was a unique case on the African continent. Unlike other African nations, Ethiopia managed to maintain its sovereignty during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Map of Africa during the Scramble for Africa
Ethiopia is Africa’s oldest independent state and one of two African countries that avoided colonial rule. Ethiopia was long an isolated country. However, as Menelik started expanding his empire, European colonial powers started showing an interest in the territories surrounding Ethiopia.
Here's a look at key aspects of Ethiopia's resistance:
Diplomatic Maneuvering
One of the key strategies employed by Ethiopia was diplomatic maneuvering. Emperor Menelik II, who reigned from 1889 to 1913, played a crucial role in this. He skillfully navigated the complex political landscape of the time, playing off the competing interests of various European powers against each other.
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During his rise to power, Menelik struggled to control Ethiopia against his internal rival Emperor Johannes IV. He signed treaties with Italy, France, and Britain, which recognized Ethiopia's borders and sovereignty.
Military Resistance
Military resistance was another significant strategy. The Battle of Adwa in 1896 was a pivotal moment in Ethiopia's resistance against European colonization. The Ethiopian forces, led by Menelik II, defeated an Italian army, marking the first time an African nation had defeated a European power in a major battle.
Battle of Adwa
In 1885, Italian troops occupied Eritrea, then still a province of Ethiopia. They mainly did so, to counter the French expansion in the region. The seizure by Italians of huge swathes of agricultural fields in the highlands sparked an anti-colonial revolt in the Ethiopian army. In response, the Italians invaded the Tigray region but faced the resistance of Ethiopian troops, who defeated them in the battle of Adwa in 1896. This victory brought Ethiopia new prestige as well as general recognition of its sovereign status by the European powers.
In the peace treaty that followed, Emperor Menelik II renounced Ethiopian claims to the Italian colony of Eritrea in exchange for the recognition of Ethiopia as an independent State. More specifically, Italy was granted the territories of Bogos, Hamasen and Akale-Guzai. On 1 January 1890, the Italian king announced the creation of the colony of Eritrea - the new monarch of the independent Ethiopia, Menelik II accepted.
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The Battle of Adwa is far from a simple battle narrative. In response to this defeat thousands of Italian troops were ferried to Eritrea and, with great pressure from Rome to attack quickly, General Oreste Baratieri advanced and, due to a series of blunders by his subordinate commanders, his force was overwhelmed. Aside from numerous casualties, one mission reported roughly 3,600 dead though the exact number remains unknown, the Ethiopians also captured 1,900 Italians and 1,500 Askari (African soldiers serving in the Italian armed forces).
This victory not only preserved Ethiopia's independence but also served as a symbol of resistance for other African nations. Ethiopia's successful defense established a legacy of pride and independence that resonates throughout African history, influencing future movements for decolonization. The victory at Adwa inspired other African nations and anti-colonial movements, showcasing that resistance against European powers was possible.
Strategic Modernization
Strategic modernization was also a key part of Ethiopia's resistance strategy. Menelik II and his successor, Haile Selassie, recognized the importance of modernizing Ethiopia to withstand European pressures. They implemented reforms to modernize the military, infrastructure, and education system.
Menelik II was Emperor of Ethiopia from 1889 to his death in 1913, and King of Shewa (1866-89). He introduced several significant changes. For example, his decision in the late 1880s to locate the royal seat to Addis Ababa (“New Flower”) led to a permanent capital in the 1890s.
This included importing modern weapons, building railways and telegraph lines, and establishing modern schools. These reforms not only strengthened Ethiopia's ability to resist European colonization but also helped to foster a sense of national identity and unity.
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The Battle of Adwa (1896): How Ethiopia Defeated Italy | Part 1 of Africas Greatest Victory
Additional Factors
In addition to these strategies, Ethiopia's geographical location also played a role in its resistance. Its highlands and rugged terrain made it difficult for European powers to establish control. Furthermore, Ethiopia's historical claim to be a Christian nation also helped it gain sympathy and support from certain European powers, particularly Britain.
Ethiopia was however occupied by Italy in the 1930s, forcing the Emperor Haile Selassie to flee. Haile Selassie was only able to return after British and Ethiopian forces expelled the Italian army in the course of World War II.
Key Figures and Symbolism
Emperor Menelik II is shown to be a complex and engaging historical figure as well as a crafty politician. He documents the complex political web that Menelik had to navigate, and the admirable support he received from his wife Empress Taytu. Jonas also underscores Menelik's strategic acumen.
Menelik saw Adwa as a way to solidify his rule and preserve his independence. The desire to see Ethiopia as a symbol of resistance came from others.
The concern for cost was tied to the strong anti-colonial movement in Italy, due to having so recently been occupied by Austria, which was distinct in Europe. In response to the first defeat at Amba Alage students from the University of Rome marched through the street chanting "Viva Menelik!" and after Adwa there were legislative calls to abandon Africa entirely.
Too often heroes lose their humanity in the effort to place them on a pedestal and Jonas does admirable work in fleshing out the reality of Menelik. For example, the Italians occupied the city of Adigat for over a year before Menelik confronted them. Rather than a sign of weakness, as the Italians believed, he used that delay to import European weapons to such an extent that his artillery outclassed those of the Italians.
Much of the symbolism surrounding Adwa came from others, such as W.E.B.
Contemporary Ethiopia
Let’s be blunt. It’s fair to say that, relative to other African counties, contemporary Ethiopia and Liberia have little to show for not having been colonized in the late 19th century. Having avoided the deep humiliation and diurnal horrors of colonialism, one would’ve expected both countries to successfully go about economic, social, and political modernization throughout the 20th century on their own terms. Instead, the two countries currently lag Continental averages in per capita income and myriad human development outcomes. They’ve also struggled to build coherent states that can create enabling environments for human flourishing.
Ethiopia hosts the African Union (AU) and is one of the world’s largest troop contributor to U.N. peacekeeping operations. Agriculture accounts for 70% of employment and a third of GDP. Coffee is the country’s largest export. The hydroelectric project, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance dam, is Africa’s largest hydroelectric power project. Once completed, it would allow Ethiopia to export electricity to its neighbors. Natural resources that make a significant contribution to the economy include gold (At least a million people are estimated to be employed in gold mining), platinum, copper, potash, natural gas and (as stated above), hydropower. Ethiopia has never really been supported by rich mineral resources. Instead, it relied on advances in agriculture. Indeed, Ethiopia was among the first African people to adopt plowing technology.
| Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
| Diplomacy | Menelik II skillfully balanced relations with European powers through treaties and negotiations. |
| Military | The Battle of Adwa in 1896 resulted in a decisive Ethiopian victory against Italy. |
| Modernization | Implementation of reforms in military, infrastructure, and education strengthened Ethiopia. |
| Geography | Highlands and rugged terrain made it difficult for European powers to control Ethiopia. |
| Symbolism | Ethiopia's resistance became a symbol of pride and inspiration for other African nations. |
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