Traditional and indigenous fermented plant mixtures, multi-component alcohol infusions, and bitter tonics are prepared and consumed worldwide as beverages, medicines, or for sociocultural purposes. These mixtures often consist of roots, bark, and other parts of wildcrafted species. Examples include kaojiuqian in China, garrafadas in Brazil, mahuli in India, and bita in French Guiana.
The preparation and use of alcohol-based or fermented plant mixtures made with roots and bark of wild and cultivated species has also been recorded both in Africa and in countries across the Atlantic Ocean with a significant Afro-descendant population, such as in several Caribbean islands and the wider Caribbean region, especially as aphrodisiacs and for treating sexually transmitted infections.
In Jamaica, artisanal fermented decoctions that include several wild-harvested and forest plants are known as root tonics. Jamaican root tonics are commonly produced and consumed at home, or sold locally in the informal economy. They are widely appreciated by Jamaicans as an energizer, aphrodisiac, for blood purification, and for the promotion and maintenance of good health.
The popularity of root tonics as a symbol of Jamaican biological and cultural heritage (in short “biocultural heritage”) stands in stark contrast to the breadth and depth of their scientific study. So far, one paper has reviewed the plant diversity of root tonics, from a study that used data from labels of listed ingredients on commercial products.
This paper focuses on the intangible cultural aspects of Jamaican root tonics, using information from ethnobotany research and oral history testimonies as a lens to explore the potential for development of an equitable Jamaican cottage industry for artisanal root tonic producers. The primary goal was to conduct ethnobotanical research to increase the scientific knowledge base about root tonics.
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Specifically, this paper uses a mixed methods approach based on ethnobotany and oral history research, and a contextual analysis of the production market, to understand the “emic” (insider's or community) perspective of root tonics, addressing the following questions:
- What are Jamaican root tonics?
- Why do Jamaicans drink root tonics?
- Where did the tradition of making root tonics come from (who developed this tradition)?
- Who is especially knowledgeable about root tonics?
- What is the profile of an artisanal root tonic producer?
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Methodology
At the beginning of fieldwork, communities across the island were approached through a network of contacts. The project and its research objectives were explained, opinions were listened to, and expression of interest in the study was awaited. Upon receiving positive feedback, a visit was planned, and the community was stayed in for several days to conduct interviews, guided by a local community member, who also facilitated the recruitment process and recommended potential interviewees.
Before each interview, the goals of the project were explained, and the participant's verbal, free and prior-informed consent (FPIC) was asked for. Written informed consent was obtained for Figure 2. Face-to-face interviews were conducted in Jamaican Patois, with the interviewer asking survey questions and recording the answers on paper or a laptop.
To protect their identity, study participants received a number, nickname, or initials on the questionnaire, unless they explicitly gave their permission to be acknowledged for their participation in the project. For the purpose of this scientific paper, data of all study participants was anonymized.
In total, between February 2018 and May 2019, 99 people were interviewed, 88 men and 11 women, across five parishes (Figure 1). The lower number of women reflects the gendered nature of plant collectors and root tonic producers that is skewed toward men. The age of study participants varied from 26 to 88 years, with an average (±STDEV) of 59 ± 13 years.
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Figure 1. Map of Jamaica with parish boundaries and parish names (light gray). Black dots and black names represent the five communities (and neighboring areas) where ethnobotanical research (interviews and plant collecting) took place (parish name is given between brackets): Flamstead (St. James), Pusey (Manchester), Downtown Kingston (Kingston), Retreat (St.
Interview answers from all 99 participants were entered and organized in an Excel spreadsheet. Column headings consisted of variables (gender, age, occupation, religion, number of plants reported…) or survey questions, while rows and cells contained individual answers from participants (see Supplementary File). The formatted Excel spreadsheet was imported into Atlas.ti, and four central interview questions were coded for qualitative analysis: Q1-Definition (what is a root tonic?), Q2-Motivation (why do Jamaicans drink root tonics?), Q3-Origin (where does this tradition come from?) and Q4-Knowledge keepers (who is especially knowledgeable about root tonics?).
After several rounds of careful reading through all interview answers, we identified and assigned 23 codes, based on the recurrence of verbatim terms that were expressed in answers from interviewees to these open-ended questions (Table 1).
Table 1. Central Questions for Sustainable Development
Based on the responses from interviews, we developed four central questions to assist in creating a road map for the sustainable development of a cottage industry for root tonics, as follows:
- What is our definition of sustainable development?
- What are the steps that a traditional, small-scale root tonic producer can take to develop and scale-up their production in the informal and formal sectors?
- How can a traditional root tonic be improved upon for sale to the general local population?
- How feasible is it to suggest a cottage industry; what would be the ideal socio-economic situation for traditional root tonic producers in Jamaica, and how might this scenario be realized in the future?
The definition of sustainable heritage development used in this paper is based on the results of a review of the literature. The goals of the roadmap were defined, and interview responses, direct (participant) observation of Jamaican society, its culture and economy, and research into the resources available to informal micro enterprises were used to identify barriers that artisanal root tonic producers might face.
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The level of production and the sales environment gleaned from the survey results were used to determine the assumed starting point for the root tonic producer to be a home brewer with sales scattered throughout the year, with production being limited to usually a 5-gallon batch of tonic sold over several weeks to mostly people within the producer's social network.
Based on this assumption, resources that would be available were determined, and attainable strategies to improve this producer's situation, with steps that can be taken within the informal economy until the producer feels empowered to formalize their root tonic business were sought. The identified barriers were used to create a road map that would seem manageable, and culturally acceptable, to the average producer.
What are Jamaican Root Tonics?
In their answers to this question, Jamaican participants emphasized a root tonic's strength-building quality as a drink made of a combination of plants that supports and cleanses the body, cures sickness, provides energy, and settles the nerves.
The number of plant species used in root tonics varied between 4 and 55, with an average of 15 ± 8 (STDEV) plants. Persons who prepared root tonics used the roots, bark and whole chopped liana parts of these species, and for some also the leaves, all of which needed to be dried before use. Several producers stated that it was important to work with plant parts that were fully dried, or that otherwise the tonic would spoil.
In colloquial language, a root tonic is often referred to as “roots.” Root tonics are not considered bitters, with only three people mentioning this term, of which one person explicitly clarified that “bitters is not a roots” (MT3, male, age 60). In addition, the difference between a tea and a root tonic was also explained as follows: “[It depends on the] amount of different things you put in it, for a tea [you] just [put a plant like] sarsaparilla, ramoon, chainey root.
The preparation of a root tonic is a time-consuming process that involves the collection, drying, and boiling of various plant ingredients in water, after which the decoction is cooled, strained, and bottled. The whole process from collection to finish can take several weeks, or even months. Most participants reported collecting plants during a specific moon phase, often three days before or three days after the full moon, when the moon is considered strongest (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Collecting roots and lianas (called “wiss”) of various wild-harvested plant species to prepare root tonics in St.
Important plant species used in root tonics, notably vines and roots, are wild-harvested in forests and other remote ecosystems that are difficult to reach and require long collection trips on foot. The botanical diversity of root tonics falls outside the scope of this paper and will be addressed elsewhere, but two of the most popular species across the five study areas were lianas of the genus Smilax, belonging to the Smilacaceae: Chainey root (Smilax canellifolia Mill., illegitimate synonym Smilax balbisiana Griseb.), and sarsaparilla (Smilax ornata Lem., synonym Smilax regelii Killip and C.V.Morton).
Figure 3.
The plants are usually dried naturally in direct sun or shade, over several days or weeks (Figure 3). Each person has their own specific recipe, which we did not record during interviews, out of respect for, and to protect, their intellectual property rights (IPR).
The general process for preparing roots involves boiling the plant mixture over several hours, traditionally over firewood, after which the liquid of the “first boil” may be decanted and either finished at this stage, or new water is added, and the whole process repeated (Figure 4). Then this liquid is added to the previous, and the preparation is left to cool.
Figure 4. Preparation of a root tonic showing boiled plant ingredients after decantation of the liquid.
Next, it is bottled (Figure 5) and put down in a cool place for a month or longer, which is described as “curing.” Several persons noted that in the past, the bottles were often buried under the earth to keep them cool and slow down the fermentation process which prevents the glass from bursting.
Figure 5.
Ingredients that can be added as a preservative to keep a root tonic from spoiling included burned sugar, molasses, honey, wine, or rum.
Why Do Jamaicans Drink Root Tonics?
Jamaicans tend to consume root tonics in a shot glass in the morning and/or evening, especially when they need energy, or to relax the mind. When asked whether men, women, and children all drink root tonics, 84 people (85 percent) answered “everyone,” whereas 11 people said “only adults,” 2 people “mostly men,” one person said it depended on the type of root tonic, and another person did not answer the question. However, 30 people specified that children should only drink a small amount, measured as one or two spoonsful, or that their root tonic should be diluted with water.
It was not until interview participants were asked about reasons for drinking root tonics that their role as an aphrodisiac beverage came to the forefront. Other important functions, such as strengthening, building and cleansing the body and blood, curing sickness, providing energy, and settling the nerves had already been emphasized previously in response to the question “What is a root tonic?”
The strength-building capacity of root tonics was associated with working hard (9 answers), as the following quotes illustrate: “It help[s] when we work. It build[s] energy in your body, give[s] you a stronger mindset.
At least seven functions of root tonics from the interviews were identified, which complement and/or overlap each other (Table 3). One study participant described the multifunctionality of root tonics as follows: “It has a lot of meaning[s]-a product that can help sickness, like a medicine. It has a lot of different things, substance” (St. Thomas-6, male, 56 years).
Table 2. Quotation Counts and Association Strength
Quotation counts and strength of association (measured as the C-coefficient) between each code and four interview questions (Q1-Definition: What are Jamaican root tonics? Q2-Motivation: Why do Jamaicans drink root tonics? Q3-Origin: Where does this tradition come from?
Table 3. Functions of Root Tonics
Identified functions of root tonics from interviews.
Where Did the Tradition of Making Root Tonics Come From?
In their answers to this question, study participants emphasized the Africa connection (39 quotations, Table 2). They described root tonics as a tradition with deep spiritual and natural connotations passed on by African elders, who endured the brutal hardships of slavery. Several people referred to Creation, God, visions, or a spiritual origin.
Someone said: “Older head people, them maybe learn it from the Spirit. Some people recognize it spiritually, the bush become[s] like a spiritual thing, a living soul, them [plants] have their own purpose” (Windsor Forest-7, male, age 66). Another participant stated: “African[s] - our history, they come here, a lot of beating and harassment that we [were] getting, we just go [in the] woods and find some bush to keep strong” (South Manchester-9, male, age 56). A third person said: “That come from slavery when the white man take away the medicine, and they [the Africans] have to seek their own medicine to stay alive. They try it out and feel nice, and then tell them bredren [friends]” (Windsor Forest-13, male, age 64).
Interview answers showed African agency as an act of resistance...
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