The domain of international space politics gained significant traction during the Cold War. This was largely fuelled by the ongoing space race between the USA and the USSR. At this time in history, space exploration was an endeavour largely restricted to the global superpowers and seemed out of reach for many smaller, developing nations to actively participate in.
Africa has had launch sites since 1947, with the first independent space programs set up early into the Space Age, and African countries participating within the United Nations in developing international space law. Over the past few decades, Africa has witnessed a significant increase in investments into space-related R&D, ranging from satellites to ground facilities, including astronomical observatories, ground stations for remote sensing and communications, and rocket launch capabilities.
At present, 20 countries across the African continent have established a national space programme, either in the form of a research institution or a national space agency. Many of these nations, including Algeria, Angola, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa and Sudan have already launched satellites into orbit, while others like Botswana and Uganda, to name a few, are committed to developing and launching their own satellites within the next few years.
Sophisticated telescopes, for astronomical observations, conducted across the electromagnetic spectrum, can be found on all four corners of the African continent. Ground stations for satellite tracking, remote sensing, and more recently, for space weather forecasting, have also been established throughout the region.
While space programmes in the USA, Europe, and some cases, Asia, may be directed towards defence and planetary exploration, Africa’s space identity is forged around the use of space technologies and infrastructures to solve socio-economic problems. According to the United Nations: "Utilising space contributes positively to a range of policy areas, including climate and weather monitoring, access to health care and education, water management, efficiency in transportation and agriculture, peacekeeping, security and humanitarian assistance."
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In Africa, access to satellite imagery data and broadband has revolutionized agriculture, helped mitigate illegal mining, and saved many lives from the impact of natural disasters, like floods and the aftermath of volcanic eruptions.
Prior to 2010, much of Africa’s involvement in the global space sector was mainly in the areas of astronomy, space science, and around assisting foreign space missions with tracking and telemetry, through ground stations with antennas strategically located across the continent.
Figure 1. Estimated space budgets for African countries in 2019 and 2020.
Not much investment has been made in the area of launch vehicles and orbital launch facilities due to much of the focus on the continent being on the downstream segment, exploiting space technologies for various applications- particularly for Earth Observation, remote sensing and satellite communications.
There are growing efforts to develop launch capabilities through rocket and missile programmes throughout the region. The first African owned satellite, NileSat 101, was launched by the European Space Agency (ESA) from Kourou, French Guiana on 28 April 1998. In terms of the number of satellites launched, South Africa leads the way with a total of 11 as of 2022, closely followed by Egypt (10), Algeria (6), Nigeria (6), Morocco (3) and Ethiopia (2).
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Although majority of the above-mentioned satellites are owned and operated by African countries, many of the satellites are built through collaborations with foreign entities. Algeria and Nigeria have both collaborated with Surrey Satellite Technology Limited (SSTL) in the UK as part of technology transfer agreements (SSTL provided training to Nigerian engineers which they then applied to the development of Nigeriasat-1 and 2).
Rwanda has partnered with the University of Tokyo in Japan in their efforts to build and launch their country’s first satellite. While small - only a bit larger than a Rubik's cube - CubeSats can still pack a big punch. However, there is one downside to CubeSats. Their lifetime of operation is only about 24 to 30 months. So unless Uganda and Zimbabwe commit to building and launching more of these satellites, the benefits will be short-lived.
Early Ambitions: The Zambia National Academy of Science, Space Research and Philosophy
Edward Festus Mukuka Nkoloso (1919-1989) was a member of the Zambian resistance movement and the founder of the Zambia National Academy of Science, Space Research and Philosophy. He was drafted into the Northern Rhodesia Regiment in World War II, ultimately serving as a sergeant in the signal corp. After the war, he became a translator for the Northern Rhodesian government.
From 1960 until sometime after 1969, Nkoloso's "space program" sought to accomplish the launching of a rocket that would send 17-year-old Matha Mwambwa and two cats to the Moon. Nkoloso stated that the goals of the program were to establish a Christian ministry to "primitive" Martians and the hope of Zambia becoming the "controllers of the seventh heaven of interstellar space".
The rocket, named D-Kalu 1 after President Kenneth Kaunda, was a 3-metre by 2-metre (10x6 ft) drum-shaped vessel. Nkoloso claimed that it was made of "space-worthy" aluminium and copper. It is said that he then asked UNESCO for a grant of £7,000,000 in Zambian pounds to support his space program. It is also said he requested $1.9 billion from "private foreign sources".
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Nkoloso stated the program failed due to lack of funds, the pregnancy of astronaut Matha Mwambwa and her subsequently leaving the program to return to her parents, and problems with morale due to media attention. The rocket was claimed to have been sabotaged "by foreign elements". Nkoloso unsuccessfully ran for mayor of Lusaka, Zambia, emphasising scientific advancement.
He was appointed by President Kaunda to the Liberation Center, a movement for regional freedom. He championed government support for witch doctors on at least one occasion.
Interviewed in 2016, President Kenneth Kaunda said of the space program that "It wasn't a real thing ...
Africa has had launch sites since 1947, with the first independent space programs set up early into the Space Age, and African countries participating within the United Nations in developing international space law.
Recent Developments: ZimSat-1 and Collaboration
When Uganda's very first satellite was launched into space last week on Nov. 7, Bonny Omara, the lead engineer on the satellite development team, was filled with emotion. In addition, the rocket was also carrying ZimSat-1, Zimbabwe's first satellite. Both satellites were developed through the Joint Global Multi-Nation Birds Project 5, BIRDS-5, in collaboration with the Kyushu Institute of Technology in Japan.
ZimSat-1
Uganda and Zimbabwe join an ever growing number of African countries that are building up their space technology capabilities. To date, 52 satellites have been launched by 14 African countries, including the two launched last week. The satellites, which have by now reached the International Space Station, are set to be deployed over the next few weeks, depending upon environmental conditions.
It is a historic moment for the two countries, who now hope the data collected by the satellites will help improve life on the ground. The satellites, which have by now reached the International Space Station, are set to be deployed over the next few weeks, depending upon environmental conditions.
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Uganda's satellite is small, but packs a punch. However, Uganda and Zimbabwe's satellites won't be providing wireless services to anyone. Instead, they've been developed for the purposes of earth observation. Multispectral cameras can take pictures that capture information from wavelengths of light not visible to the human eye.
Omara says the multispectral camera will be used to "perform analysis of water quality, land use cover, and soil fertility." That information will then be provided to citizens so that they can make the best use of the natural resources in their countries.
Sumah says that one of the main purposes of a satellite Ghana launched in 2019 was to "monitor illegal mining that was occurring in the north of Ghana." And all of those capabilities are made possible by a satellite that only measures 10cm in each direction. They're called CubeSats - and their small size and low cost to develop makes them perfect first satellites for nations developing their space technology sectors.
Despite plans for future launches by African nations, Sumah is a bit hesitant to suggest bigger things are unquestionably on the way. Even though the human capital is there to provide sustainable development of satellites, Omara thinks there's still more political and social investment needed before space technologies in Africa can fully mature.
"In the field of science and technology on the African continent, we are still limping," he says. "The reason is very simple - it's because we do not believe in ourselves. I always tell everyone that we can make it, we have every single resource that we need.
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