The history of South African tanks is a fascinating journey through evolving military doctrines, technological innovation, and the challenges of a nation forging its own path in armored warfare. From its humble beginnings with independent Boer militias to the development of the sophisticated Olifant main battle tank, South Africa's armored forces have played a crucial role in both regional conflicts and international operations.
Early Military Formations and the Union Defence Force
Before 1910 and the establishment of the Union of South Africa by General Jan Smuts, there was no formal South African army. Instead, independent Boer militias, primarily on horseback, favored guerilla warfare tactics and were wary of the rigid structure of large standing armies.
In 1912, Smuts, as the Union's first Minister of Defence, established the Union Defence Force (UDF). This marked the beginning of a standing army with a core of career NCOs and soldiers. The UDF also included the Active Citizen Force (ACF), consisting of temporary conscripts and volunteers, along with a cadet system. Conscription was introduced for all white men aged 17-60, though there was already a significant number of volunteers in the 17-25 age bracket. These forces were eventually based in 15 military districts. The UDF's core comprised five regiments of the South African Mounted Riflemen, each with its own artillery company. This force, numbering 23,400, also acted as a police force, suppressing the industrial strike of Witwatersrand.
In 1914, the South African government sided with the Allies and Great Britain. Despite internal opposition, General Botha sent a 67,000-strong expeditionary force to invade German South-West Africa (Namibia), which surrendered in July 1915. The 1st South African Brigade was deployed on the Western Front, distinguishing itself at the Battle of Delville Wood in 1916. Additionally, 20,000 SADF infantry brigades fought in a prolonged campaign against German East African colonies under Jan Smuts' command, particularly against the Ascaris.
Interwar Period and the Re-establishment of Conscription
The interwar period saw a complete demobilization of forces. However, in 1922, conscription was re-established (21 years old with four years of service) and a professional army was developed, tasked with internal security duties. This force was primarily focused on suppressing the Khoikhoi revolts. In 1932, it was deployed against the Basters independentist movement, and the following year against the Ovambo on the border with Angola, who sought independence from the Union.
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Tank Chats #129 | Marmon-Herrington Mk. IV | The Tank Museum
World War II: The Marmon-Herrington Armoured Car
When World War II broke out, South African units fought with distinction in the East African, North African, and Italian campaigns. The home defense was reorganized into several commands, including those at Capetown, Orange Free State Command, Natal Command, Witwatersrand, Roberts' Heights, Transvaal Command, and East London. In 1939, the army consisted of 5,353 regulars and 14,631 Active Citizen Force (ACF) members.
A shortage of men and materials quickly became apparent. Race policies limited conscription to white males, and there was a lack of material support from Great Britain for modern guns, light weaponry, and armored vehicles. Training emphasized commando actions in the bush. However, the early 1930s had laid an industrial foundation to build upon.
South Africa sought a mass-production solution for its armored car needs. The choice fell on the Ford 3-ton truck chassis, assembled locally at Dorman with parts from Canada and the US (Marmon-Herrington) and armored plates from the South African Iron & Steel Industrial Corporation, ISCOR. Thus, the Marmon-Herrington Armoured Car was born. This South African vehicle was mass-produced in 1940-1941 and provided support to infantry units, particularly in East Africa against the Italians. Later, the Mark II was created, and British weapons like the Boys AT rifle were imported to provide some capabilities against Italian armor. The Mark III (1942) was an improved version, and the Mark IV (1943) was a new vehicle with a QF 2-pdr main gun in a turret. Over 2000 Mark IVs were produced. The ambitious 8x8 Mark V-VI prototypes were too heavy for service. In total, around 5746 Marmon-Herrigton Armoured Cars were built in South Africa until 1944. Many of these vehicles served with the British and other allied armies, as well as with other operators after the war.
Marmon Herrington Mk IV
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Post-War Era and the Rise of Afrikaner Nationalism
The creation of a tank corps was made possible with equipment provided by the allies, particularly from the US. In North Africa, the US loaned 88 Stuart M3A1s to the South African Armoured Corps tank regiments. Units operating later in Italy with the 6th South African Armoured Division were equipped with M4 Sherman medium tanks, M4/105s, and M10 Wolverine tank hunters, in addition to Universal Carriers. The M3 Stuarts remained in service for a long time, being retired in 1955 and stored until 1961. They were reactivated in 1962 for troop training with the 6th South African Division and finally withdrawn in 1968. In 1946, South Africa also purchased two Churchill AVREs and 26 Comet tanks that arrived in 1954. However, the Comets were stored at Durban and saw service only in 1964 when training South African Armoured Corps instructors before being withdrawn in 1968. The SADF also operated 96 Universal Carrier Mk2s in 1946, and later 150 more refurbished Mk2s and T16s obtained from Great Britain in 1951-52. All were withdrawn in 1965.
In 1948, resentment against British influence led to a surge of Afrikaner nationalism, favoring the growth of the National Party (NP), which won the elections that year. The Army was subsequently "afrikanerized," with expanded military service obligations and strict conscription laws. Service consisted of a three-month draft followed by three weeks per year for four years. The Defence Rifle Associations were disbanded and replaced by a standing army of 90,000, divided into one Infantry Division and six SA Armoured Divisions (five of infantry and one the sole 11th Armoured Brigade). Due to a lack of volunteers, these divisions were disbanded in 1949 and 1953.
With the growing threat of war in the Middle East, an armored division was formed with an order of 200 Centurion tanks from Great Britain. The large-scale Exercise Oranje in 1956 tested tactical ideas about conventional operations in a simulated nuclear warfare environment. In 1957, the Defence Act (No. 44) renamed the UDF the South African Defence Force (SADF), and the organization was changed once more, including a great deal of rapid-reaction and commando units. "Royal" titles in several units were dropped, and personnel grew from 20,000 to 80,000 in the next two decades due to border wars with Namibia and Angola.
Apartheid and International Isolation
In 1961, the South African flag changed from the old Union orange-white-blue colors to a green flag with the old flag in the corners and the five-pointed star/diamond with the three arms in the bottom right corner. This era saw increasing international isolation due to apartheid policies, resulting in mass arrests and anti-riot demonstrations with casualties. Consequently, a large part of the army was used for internal security duties, while another part was active in a long protracted war against neighboring nations over border disputes.
During this time, France was, after Great Britain, the main provider of weaponry and armored vehicles, starting with the Panhard AML armored car. Operations against the SWAPO rebels (South-West Africa People's Organisation) led to a local production of armored cars, such as the Eland Mk.7, and quick-started the production of other vehicles. The Centurion became the only tank in service with the SADF, while wheeled armored vehicles were developed and became an integral part of the SADF's unique character.
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The Border War and the Development of the Olifant Tank
With the independence of Angola, SADF forces, assisted by the South West African Territorial Force, were at war with the UNITA rebels in Angola in the late 1960s and against Cuban troops supporting them. Due to a lack of manpower, the provisional 7 SA Division, along with the 17, 18, and 19th Brigades, was short-lived, from 1965 to 1967, when it was replaced by the Army Task Force and 16th Brigade.
In the 1970s, segregation policies were relaxed for recruitment, but non-whites were still confined to auxiliary duties and never saw front-line action. In 1973, the 7th SA Infantry Battalion, 8th SA Infantry Battalion, and 11th Commando were created. The next year, the army was reorganized into two divisions under a corps headquarters and reorganized in the 1980s to maintain a strong conventional core (Citizens Force, of the 7th and 8th Divisions) while being capable of flexible counter-insurgency operations (with nine territorial commands).
The armored units benefited from a series of upgrades performed on the Centurion as the "SKOKIAAN" program in 1968 (due to an ongoing UN embargo preventing spare parts and upgrades). This involved fitting a 372 kW (500 hp) V12 Detroit diesel engine. In 1973, a Continental fuel-injection engine and a three-speed Allison Semi-Automatic transmission were installed in Pretoria. However, only 11 were converted, and nine were maintained in operation on the Angolan border in 1976. The project was terminated due to their lack of range. Later, the Semels project was launched, followed by the Olifant Mark 1A program and the more ambitious Mark 1B with Israeli assistance.
Olifant Mk1B
During the border wars, SADF forces captured a large array of Soviet-built Angolan/Cuban vehicles, including T-34/85s, T-54s, T-72MIs, BMP-1s, MT-LBs with SA-13 "GOPHER" SAMs, BTR-152s, and BTR-60s. Unlike Israel, these were displayed as "spoils of war" but never reused in active service.
The Olifant: South Africa's Main Battle Tank
The Olifant (Afrikaans for Elephant) is the primary main battle tank of South Africa. It was developed from the British Centurion tank since 1976. These tanks were heavily redesigned and rebuilt by South Africa since 1976 with some help from Israel. The Olifant is considered the best indigenous tank design on the African continent. Thus, the Operation Savannah in 1975 saw the lightly armoured South African forces in Angola threatened by large formations of Soviet tanks supplied to the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) and their Cuban allies.
The South African government was obliged by the arms embargo to finance the creation of a new private sector enterprise, the Olifant Manufacturing Company (OMC), to refurbish the Centurions. The Semel program in 1974 counted a total of 35 conversions, soon used operationally. Informations from the Sho't program, the Israeli Centurion conversion program, helped greatly to start a more ambitious project.
Olifant Mk2
Starting in 1983, OMC had upgraded further Centurions with a 29-litre Teledyne Continental turbocharged diesel engine and a new transmission adopted from the M60 Patton. The refurbished Centurions were armed with a South African variant of the 105 mm L7 rifled main gun. In the early 1990s, the Olifant Mk.1A was superseded by the Olifant Mk.1B, which incorporated major improvements in armour protection, a slightly more powerful engine, a double armoured floor for protection against mines, and a torsion bar suspension.
The Olifant Mk.2 was adapted in 2005 when South Africa was no longer subject to international embargoes. Externally, the Mk.2 looks identical to the Mk.1B but features an upgraded Continental 29 Litre turbo-charged V12 diesel engine that produces 1040 hp. Improvements include an upgraded Fire Control System (FCS) and a Computerised Battle System (CBS) which includes a hunter-killer mode. A LIW 120 mm smoothbore gun can be used instead of the 105 mm L7 rifled gun.
The development and deployment of the Olifant tank series represents a significant achievement in South African military history, demonstrating the country's ability to innovate and adapt in the face of international pressure and regional conflict. The Olifant remains a symbol of South Africa's commitment to maintaining a modern and effective armored force.
The current iteration is the Mk. 2.
Other Notable South African Armored Vehicles
Besides the Olifant, South Africa has developed and deployed a range of other notable armored vehicles, including:
- Rooikat: A fast, mine-resistant 8-wheeled armoured fighting vehicle and tank destroyer designed for long-range reconnaissance, anti-armour, and high-mobility operations.
- Ratel: A wheeled, mine-resistant infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) designed for mobility and firepower in high-intensity operations.
- Casspir and Mamba: Mine-resistant ambush-protected (MRAP) vehicles that pioneered this class of vehicle during the Border War.
Rooikat
Camouflage and Markings of the 6th South African Armoured Division
- Camouflaged in accordance with the 1943 Pattern in Light Mud & Blue/Black.
- AoS Signs & Divisional Emblem (On a White background) was added to the Front & Rear.
- Some Artillery OP Tanks had Tactical Emblems added to the Rear & Sides of their Turrets.
- After the refit, all Shermans were camouflaged in Olive Drab.
Equipment of the South African Army
The South African Army's inventory consists largely of domestically produced weapons, with around 80% sourced from the local defence industry and the remaining 20% being a mix of European, Israeli, and American systems.
| Category | Vehicle/Weapon | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Main Battle Tank | Olifant Mk1A/B/2 | Heavily upgraded Centurion tank |
| Armored Reconnaissance | Rooikat | 8-wheeled, high-speed armored fighting vehicle |
| Infantry Fighting Vehicle | Ratel IFV | Wheeled, mine-resistant infantry fighting vehicle |
| Infantry Fighting Vehicle | Badger IFV | Developed under Project Hoefyster |
| MRAP | Casspir and Mamba | Mine-resistant ambush-protected vehicles |
