South Africa's history is deeply marked by racial segregation and spatial inequality, legacies that continue to shape its urban landscapes and social dynamics. The term "ghetto" has been applied to various contexts, from early modern Jewish quarters to Nazi ghettos, African American neighborhoods, and South African townships. This article delves into the complexities of South African ghettos, examining their historical roots, the impact of migration, and the disturbing phenomenon of xenophobia.
The Ghetto in Global History
The Ghetto in Global History: 1500 to the Present, edited by Wendy Z. Goldman and Joe William Trotter, Jr., traces the transnational circulation of the ghetto as a concept, policy, and lived experience. Beginning with Venice in 1516, the book maps the dissemination of the idea into colonial practices in South Africa and Nazi Germany.
Post-Apartheid South Africa: A Dream Deferred
Since gaining independence in 1994, South Africa has experienced significant internal and international migration, particularly to Johannesburg. The influx of African, Asian, and Eastern European refugees between 2000 and 2010 was the largest mass migration in modern South African history. This migration was facilitated by the end of apartheid's strict influx control policies, which had previously restricted the movement of black people from rural areas into urban centers.
During the anti-apartheid struggle, many African countries supported the movement, often at great sacrifice. The xenophobia directed at African nationals is thus viewed as a betrayal.
Influx of Immigrants into Johannesburg
Johannesburg and the Gauteng province have become magnets for economic migrants and immigrants. Despite being one of the world's most unequal societies, South Africa remains a sought-after destination for many Africans. Johannesburg has experienced significant population growth, with in-migration accounting for nearly 60% of this increase. The city's population has transformed from overwhelmingly South African in 1996 to include a substantial foreign-born population by 2011.
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Xenophobia in South Africa: A Crisis of Inclusion and Exclusion
Why are black South Africans attacking African and Asian immigrants in periodic xenophobic outbreaks in post-apartheid society? The dream of a “rainbow nation” that was premised on reconciliation between blacks and whites has become a nightmare for people with a darker skin colour from other countries. These attacks have been particularly painful and confusing for us, the political left, because of our ideals of international solidarity and the unity of the oppressed in the struggle for social and economic justice.
The xenophobia outbreaks in South Africa have a lot to do with the unevenness of capitalist development within and between countries. Under neoliberalism the world has seen the rich get richer and the poor poorer. The effect has been increasing inequalities between the classes with all the frustrations and injustices that this engenders, on the one hand, and increasing migration flows within and between countries as people search for economic opportunities, on the other hand.
In South Africa, the new post-apartheid order, with its pro-big business neoliberal economic policies, has exacerbated economic inequality inherited from apartheid rather than eradicated. The anger of the urban poor is about lives “characterised by severe overcrowding, deteriorating services, high levels of poverty, rampant unemployment, ongoing racial segregation and the daily struggles of poor people forced to compete with one another".
The apartheid system was premised on “the distinction between insider and outsider” whereby the right to be in the city was governed by strict influx control policies which allocated and circumscribed this right to clearly defined “groups of Africans”. Historically, South African society has developed “a deep prejudice against ‘others’, which was reinforced by apartheid segregation”. In post-apartheid South Africa, “foreign blacks were placed at the bottom of this system”.
The global economic crisis and the difficulties faced by a semi-peripheral economy such as South Africa means that economic survival is a struggle for most people. Among South African locals there is a “deep-seated local resentment against refugees from poorer neighbouring countries. The xenophobic attacks in the townships have much to do with competition over resources”. “Any attempt to understand this conflict should be located in the politics of failed development and delivery. Alexandra and other townships that experienced xenophobic violence…are still dumping grounds of the marginalised and alienated”.
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In a context where “more than half of the [South African] population still survive on less than R779 ($67) a month, or R26 ($2.20) per day”, it is no wonder that township folk, “whose living conditions have not altered since the end of apartheid, thus experience a sense of relative deprivation, which can be expressed through violence against those perceived to be better off” (Runciman, 2017:39).
Insider/Outsider Dynamics
The apartheid system created a distinction between insiders and outsiders, governing the right to be in the city through strict influx control policies. This division has long defined politics in townships like Alexandra, where historical tensions between "bona fides" (insiders) and "amagoduka" (newcomers/rural) persist. This "differentiated citizenship" leads to community divisions, excluding newcomers from benefiting from service delivery and creating a perception that outsiders threaten the interests of insiders.
The xenophobic attacks can be viewed as a movement of exclusion - forcibly excluding immigrants from jobs, houses and other benefits in a sad competition between competing groups of the (excluded) oppressed and exploited against each other.
The following table summarizes the key factors contributing to xenophobia in South Africa:
| Factor | Description |
|---|---|
| Economic Inequality | Exacerbated by neoliberal policies, leading to competition for scarce resources. |
| Failed Development | Inadequate services and marginalization in townships fuel resentment. |
| Insider/Outsider Mentality | Legacy of apartheid segregation reinforces prejudice against "others." |
| Competition for Resources | Locals perceive immigrants as taking jobs, houses, and resources. |
Xenophobia In South Africa: History Of Events 17/04/15
Umhlanga: A "Blue Zone" of Privilege and Fear
Visitors are greeted with a sign saying ”Warning criminals you are entering a Blue Zone 24 hours dedicated patrols in operation”; we are in the thriving white ghetto Umhlanga outside Durban, South Africa. It is my first visit to South Africa and it is a very different and to some extent disturbing experience compared to my previous stays in West and East Africa. It is altogether a different zone-a blue zone.
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There is almost always a security vehicle in the street corner, there is also a security guy on a bicycle, and every house has got at least one sign telling us which private security company they use. They have Blue security for the area and then individually organized security for each house-the monthly fee for security is said to roughly equal an average state pension. All have electric fences, even a taxi-driver we talk to admits having an electric fence on the walls around his house in the rather low class area he resides in. In Umhlanga it is a must and walls are tall and impersonal, carving out a no-go street in between with unpleasant lights at night.
It is scary to imagine you being attacked in the street because if you are: there are no people out at night and no place to run. Would anyone open their electric gate for you if you are in need of temporary security?
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