South Africa certainly has a very controversial and checkered history. Prior to 1994, during colonisation and during the apartheid regime, psychological assessments were frequently used as tools of exclusion, particularly against South Africans of non-European ancestry collectively described as black South Africans. Many of the assessments were designed primarily for white populations and were used to support racially discriminatory policies. Lacking cultural relevance, validity and fairness, these assessments produced biased outcomes that reinforced segregation and oppression (Foxcroft & De Kock, 2023; Laher, 2024).
When considering how psychometric assessment processes were misused in the past, the mistrust and skepticism that still exists regarding this practice is understandable. The end of apartheid in 1994 marked the beginning of a transformation in various aspects of South African society, including psychological assessment practices.
Great strides have however been made in this regard since the turn of the millennium in South Africa. Therefore, we need to move beyond this thinking and recognize how psychometric assessments can benefit our society (employees and local businesses specifically). South Africa is 30 years into democracy. This milestone provides an excellent opportunity to reflect on psychological assessment in South Africa as the modern history of psychology and psychological assessment in South Africa mirrors the long and complex history of the country.
In other countries, issues of fairness, validity and reliability are mainly to be addressed by the Psychologist or other professional using or administering the tests. In SA, these important considerations were however incorporated into our National Law. For me, this is evidence of the importance of the matter for all the parties involved.
As a registered Industrial and Organisational Psychologist, I am governed by and in support of the national legislation, psychological codes of conduct, and best practice processes laid out by the International Test Commission, Health Professions Council of South Africa, Society for Industrial & Organisational Psychology South Africa, Basic Conditions of Employment Act and the Employment Equity Act specifically (to name a few). I firmly believe that any true professional can be identified based on their knowledge and continued application of the above laws and guidelines provided by these governing bodies.
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Issues with Assessment
One of the most common concerns that are still raised regarding psychometric assessment in South Africa, is that it is perceived as not being fair and reliable considering the cultural and language differences as well as educational and employment inequalities. In my experience, issues come up when tests are normed on one group (e.g. white American people) and used to assess another (e.g. black South Africans). For this reason, I strongly advocate the use of local, multicultural and multilingual norm groups that are regularly updated and representative of the country’s general population.
FYI ''Norming is used to make sense of and to fairly compare people's test results. This allows us to benchmark people's scores to a relevant and inclusive group of people who completed the same measure under the same standardized conditions.''
In the legislation and policy space, the Employment Equity Act Chapter 2, section 8 (Government Gazette, 1998) and the Health Professions Act Annexure 12, Section 5 (Government Gazette, 2006) advocate for fair and ethical test use. The Professional Board for Psychology (PBP) at the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) has a number of documents and guidelines speaking to ethical and responsible test use including the ethical guidelines governing psychological practice (HPCSA, 2010), guidelines for test classification (HPCSA, 2021) and guidelines for system-based testing (PBP, 2021). The HPCSA’s Professional Practice Committee currently classifies tests as psychological, but does not assess their quality.
To address gaps in this regulatory framework, three key organisations - the Psychological Society of South Africa (PsySSA), the Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology in South Africa (SIOPSA), and the Association of Test Publishers South Africa (ATP-SA) - collaborated to establish Assessment Standards South Africa (ASSA).
Research studies, published in journals such as the South African Journal of Psychology and the Journal of Psychology in Africa, have investigated various psychological assessments, including cognitive, vocational, and personality tests. Local conferences like the annual PsySSA, SIOPSA and the South African Clinical Neuropsychological Association (SACNA) congresses and international platforms like the International Test Commission conference also showcase the breadth of assessment work in the country. Within this space, the African Journal of Psychological Assessment (AJOPA) has been a critical platform for disseminating regional, primarily South African, assessment research, offering full open-access to its contents.
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Since its launch in 2019, AJOPA has seen substantial growth despite the need to introduce page fees to cover the costs of open-access. In 2023, the journal recorded over 60 000 abstract views and more than 42 000 full-text downloads. Citation counts have been increasing by approximately 25% each year.
Reflecting on research published over the last 6 years in AJOPA, it is evident that the psychological community in South Africa is very aware of the importance of cultural sensitivity in assessments. However, the majority of papers focus on testing psychometric properties of etic instruments to investigate relevance for use in South Africa and to establish cross-cultural applicability. Developing emic tests is often cited as an urgent imperative alongside the translation of tests into all languages in South Africa, but test development and standardisation is a long and expensive process.
The South African Personality Inventory project is testament to this, having started over 15 years ago (Hill et al., 2021). Hence the next best option is to adapt tests for use in South Africa, and this form of research is very evident within the last decade. While there has been a lot of research in the last 30 years, this has not yet translated into the use of these instruments in practice and this should become an imperative.
Cognitive Assessment
Knowns, Unknowns and Best Practices in Cognitive Assessment of Diverse Populations
Given the Educational inequalities still present in SA, I do not assess Intelligence Quotient (IQ), but rather make use of more dynamic, gamified and often non-verbal assessments that are less reliant on prior learning and language. This approach has been proven to be fairer in a diverse society such as SA - especially considering the use thereof in previously disadvantaged groups. Traditional IQ tests could discriminate against certain groups based on unequal educational and employment opportunities.
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To avoid this, as well as possible unfair disadvantages posed by cultural and racial differences found in IQ test results and the issues posed by limited or outdated norms, alternatives to the traditional means of assessing intelligence have more recently been used. To ensure a much fairer approach to making decisions about employees, Industrial / Organisational Psychologists have rather been assessing how people process and accumulate information. I assess, to list a few examples, learning agility, memory skill and processing speed to determine how well people cope with novel problems under standardized conditions.
''Traditional IQ tests could discriminate against certain groups based on unequal educational and employment opportunities... To ensure a much fairer approach, Industrial/Organisational Psychologists have rather been assessing how people process and accumulate information.''
Encouraging a continual reliance on psychological tools developed in other countries, particularly from the Global North, perpetuates the use of assessments that fail to capture the complex realities of South African society (Laher, 2024). Alongside this is the lack of resources in terms of funds and local skills to develop emic tests. This argument, however, situates itself within a context where psychological assessment is defined structurally by the currently available methods and tools which rely on paper-and-pencil, self-report formats that are typically copyrighted.
These tests were typically not normed on South African populations, and norms from outside South Africa are often used to make high stakes decisions with the proviso of ‘use with caution’.
Research on incorporating indigenous knowledge systems and African psychological frameworks into testing practices offers some useful direction for rethinking assessment techniques. The collection of chapters in Ferreira (2016) provides excellent direction on contextually relevant assessments that do not require many resources yet can be effectively used ranging from body-mapping, sandwork and the use of genograms. Kekae-Moletsane (2008) discusses the use of Masekitlana [a traditional indigenous South African game in which children use two stones while relating their imagined stories] as an effective projective and therapeutic technique.
Matafwali and Serpell (2014) describe the use of playdough in the Panga Munthu test as an alternative to the Draw-a-Person test as well as the incorporation of indigenous games like Nsolo [traditional board game played with holes in the ground or wooden board and pebbles, seeds or other tokens to assess fine motor skills]. Tactile reasoning can be assessed using locally familiar materials such as toothpicks, bottle tops, stones, and beads (Matafwali & Serpell, 2014). Similarly, Bekwa (2016) developed items using local materials as inspiration for non-verbal items to assess cognitive ability similar to those in the Raven’s Progressive Matrices.
Within the context of vocational assessment in South Africa, the efficacy of contextually based narrative approaches has also been demonstrated (Maree, 2016). Developing innovative, contextually relevant assessment is no easy task, but if future psychologists are trained to address the complexities of psychological testing in diverse contexts from the undergraduate level, this could develop communities of practice that will see this as an imperative alongside therapeutic work.
Practitioners should be encouraged to share their knowledge based on their extensive use of assessments in public and private practice. This does not need to take the form of peer-reviewed research but could be shared in online spaces like blogs or through the spaces offered by the various psychological associations.
An often lamented aspect in psychological assessment is the lack of local norms or the use of outdated norms. However, the thinking around norm development in South Africa centres around large, demographically representative South African samples. Shuttleworth-Edwards and Truter (2022) suggest alternative approaches, highlighting the potential of local, contextual norms using smaller samples and specific groups. Bilder (2011) proposes an innovative idea of sharing individual and group data in real-time via open-access formats to establish more relevant norms.
Personality Tests
Besides cognitive assessments, personality tests make up the next broad assessment domain in psychological testing. I personally subscribe to the use of objective, self-report personality inventories, especially those that have been adapted to the SA context as here, English language proficiency is an important consideration. To ensure understanding, supervised assessment is also conducted as far as possible to provide support and translation where required.
A person's personality traits tell us more about their interests, preferences and working styles. The degree of alignment between someones personal traits and a company's culture, strategy, vision and even specific role requirements provide critical information. This information can be used to ensure better organisational and job-fit, which obviously benefits both the individual and the company.
''The degree of alignment between someones personal traits and a company's culture, strategy, vision and even specific role requirements provide critical information that can be used to ensure better organisational and job-fit.''
Computerized Assessments
Regarding computerized assessments, just a few quick notes. South Africa was an early adopter of computerized assessments with lots of work being conducted in this space from as early as the 1970's. When administered professionally, adhering to all the codes of conduct and best practice, well-designed computerized assessments can actually help to protect the rights of respondents by ensuring up to date norms and test items.
Other means of leveraging technology to aid in increasing access to assessment in South Africa are very necessary going forward. The use of technology in facilitating assessment processes as well as technology-based assessments is often cited as an enabler for enhancing inclusion in resource-constrained settings. Assessment processes such as screening, interviewing and scoring of tests are time-consuming. Further the pool of candidates is limited to only a particular space or region where in-person assessments are a possibility thus limiting the pool of candidates for universities, organisations, among others (Bronkhorst, in press; Top Talent Solutions [TTS], 2023).
Using technology, particularly artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology, offers more opportunities in this regard. Furthermore, innovations like Hassem’s (2021) adaptation of an open-access online depression screening tool for the South African context also offer new opportunities to bridge gaps in resources and personnel.
There are areas across the country who have limited mental health care facilities and practitioners in the public service, and private healthcare is too expensive. Stigma around mental health concerns ensures that people do not access care when needed. Recently, the integration of AI in organisational assessment settings is argued to enhance the assessment experience by offering more streamlined solutions to typical recruitment and talent management processes ranging from automating screening processes, video interviews, and job profiling, AI assisted scoring and AI proctoring for online assessments.
However, in the South African context and internationally, there is varying efficacy across all of these functions with screening processes, video interviews and AI scoring of video interviews and job profiling demonstrating good efficacy (see TTS 2023, 2024a, 2024b), but AI proctoring demonstrating variable, and often inaccurate efficacy (Chan, 2024). A recent study found that device type does not negatively affect performance or user experience with test users reporting positive experiences when completing tests on a smartphone.
Aside from technology-assisted assessment processes, technology-based assessments (TBAs) are opening up new means for assessing individuals. Technology-based psychological assessments use digital tools like computers, tablets, or smartphones to evaluate individuals, replacing traditional paper tests. These assessments collect response (e.g., correct or incorrect answers) and process data (e.g., test-taking behaviours). The latter provides insights into how individuals approach problem-solving, including strategies and navigation behaviours, offering a deeper understanding of their cognitive processes.
This method is gaining traction because of its ability to capture not only outcomes but also the steps involved in arriving at them, contributing to a more comprehensive assessment (Chen et al., 2023; Goldhammer et al., 2020). Smartphone apps offer portable and accessible mental health assessments, especially useful in rural areas and for individuals reluctant to seek in-person services. These apps utilise built-in sensors like global positioning system (GPS) and microphones for ecological momentary assessments (EMA), providing real-time data on behaviours and emotions. They may encourage early intervention, particularly in teens, and reduce strain on healthcare systems. However, most apps focus on monitoring rather than formal assessment, and limited empirical data restricts their use in clinical or high stakes settings (Gama & Laher, 2024; Hassem et al., in press).
Ambulatory assessments offer real-time insights into individual functioning in natural settings, using methods like Experience Sampling Methodology (ESM) and EMA to collect dynamic data via smartphones or wearables. These approaches help track mood, behaviour, and physiological responses throughout daily life, offering more ecologically valid data than traditional assessments conducted in controlled environments (Laher, 2024). Simulated computerised assessments, including virtual and augmented reality, simulate real-life tasks for evaluating cognitive, emotional, or behavioural responses. These methods improve ecological validity and provide standardised, real-time behavioural data.
While promising, TBAs have a number of limitations ranging from need for specialised equipment, potential technical issues, and ensuring the validity of the virtual environments. Ethical concerns specific to South Africa, such as the lack of psychometric data, issues around data privacy and security, consent, third-party interactions and psychological impact, as virtual scenarios could evoke intense emotions or trauma need further consideration.
Technology-based assessments may enhance access, but they also highlight the digital divide. Currently, only a small percentage of South Africans have regular internet access, which still limits the reach of online tools. This presents significant challenges, as the majority of the population lacks the necessary technology or infrastructure, such as computers and internet access, to utilise these assessments (Laher, 2024). Moreover, literacy and language barriers persist, even with technological advancements like text-to-speech and automated translation. Natural language processing (NLP) models have pronounced difficulties automatically translating to African languages (Ravindran, 2023).
For example, African languages like isiZulu are agglutinative, meaning words are formed by combining shorter elements, which English-based NLP struggles to parse. Additionally, many African languages include diacritics - marks that guide pronunciation - further complicating AI adaptation (Ravindran, 2023). Furthermore while such tools can provide assistance, verbatim translations often miss important cultural nuances, and may not be as reliable as traditional translation methods.
Final thoughts
In all I do, I strive to be sensitive to and considerate of contextual and cultural differences to ensure fairness and reliability. I believe that psychometric assessments can be immensely helpful and not hurtful. When assessment practices are implemented professionally, it can be used to upskill, develop and empower people. ''When professional assessment practices are implemented, it can be used to upskill, develop and empower all people... It can be immensely helpful.''
Almost all of the people that I have assessed and provided development feedback to based on their test results (regardless of how well they performed) said that it is a very enriching and informative process that they can use to navigate their careers and develop professionally.
In summary, psychological assessment in South Africa has made significant progress since the end of apartheid, particularly in addressing the historical inequalities perpetuated by psychological testing during that period. However, there is still much work to be done to ensure that assessments are fair, culturally appropriate, and accessible to all South Africans. Looking forward, greater emphasis must be placed on developing tests that reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity of the country. Research on emic tests or emic ways of testing tailored to local populations should be prioritised. This does not mean a move away from pseudo-etic test approaches or not using etic tests at all, but rather a more critical reflection on who we test and how we test, and how best can how we test be fit for purpose.
Overall, technology holds great promise in advancing psychological assessments in South Africa, but several challenges, including ethical considerations, the digital divide, and concerns over bias, need to be addressed. As these assessments become more prevalent, there is an urgent need for regulations and ethical guidelines to ensure their responsible use. The next decade of assessment in South Africa needs to focus on innovative, contextually relevant means of assessing the population within the current resource constraints.
Gamification of Psychometric Testing
Many companies have identified the following benefits to gamifying testing in the workplace:
- It reduces socially desirable responding, where candidates respond based on what they think the employer wants to hear.
- It minimizes the effect of lack of self-awareness in the prospective employee as he or she may be unaware of his or her own internal processes.
- It reduces test anxiety that some prospective employees may experience in a traditional testing environment.
But a larger benefit of gamifying testing is to make the process as meritocratic as possible. Some firms have also hidden details of candidates' university to eliminate “unconscious bias.” Such companies include Deloitte, the NHS, HSBC and the BBC.
Gaming types
The gamification of psychometric testing in the workplace can be classified into three types:
- Mobile technology to administer psychometric tests
- Gaming environments that simulate the work environment
- Gaming environments that mimic existing games and app
In the United Kingdom, some major companies are using a suite of games that mimic “Angry Birds” style of environments to incorporate psychometric testing. According to the game developers: “Our psychometric games have been designed to measure dimensions of the Big Five personality framework, specific cognitive functions and General Mental Ability (GMA).”
Another type of gaming environment mimics dating-app Tinder, where candidates are matched with their ideal work environment. It is called Debut - for career placement. Candidates are typically comfortable sharing data and photos as they are accustomed to doing so on social media.
Table of Key Considerations for Psychometric Testing in South Africa
| Consideration | Description |
|---|---|
| Cultural Sensitivity | Ensuring tests are relevant and fair across diverse cultural backgrounds. |
| Language Proficiency | Addressing language barriers through multilingual assessments and support. |
| Educational Inequalities | Using dynamic, non-verbal assessments to mitigate the impact of unequal educational opportunities. |
| Digital Divide | Addressing limited access to technology and internet in rural areas. |
| Ethical Guidelines | Establishing regulations for the responsible use of technology-based assessments. |
| Local Norms | Prioritizing the development and use of local, context-specific norms. |
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