India and Africa share a relationship that can be traced back to ancient times. Contacts and trade between the people of the eastern seaboard of Africa and the western seaboard of India have been going on for centuries. This relationship has evolved through various phases, from ancient maritime commerce and shared struggles against colonialism to modern-day economic partnerships and strategic cooperation.
Map of the Indus Valley Civilization
Ancient and Medieval Connections
Ancient maritime commerce connected the peoples of India and Africa through the Indian Ocean. This was followed by religious exchanges and, later, a shared struggle against colonialism. India and Africa have multidimensional relationships dating back to ancient times. There exists geographical proximity between Africa and India through an easily navigable Indian Ocean, which fostered trade relationships between the Indian subcontinent and Africa.
Trade relationships began when Indian sea merchants sailed from the Gulf of Kutch on India's western coast to East African coastal regions in pre-colonial times, using alternating winds for navigation. They sailed as far as Zanzibar, formerly known as the Zenji Coast, where they bought incense, palm oil, myrrh, gold, copper, spices, ivory, rhino horn, and wild animal skins. In exchange, Indian merchants sold cloth, metal implements, wheat, rice, jiggery, porcelain, and glassware to East African markets.
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a merchant's sailor's logbook written in the first century AD, provides an early history of sailing records in East Africa and the Red Sea coast. It also showcases ancient India’s seafaring culture and maritime activities. This document offers a picture of flourishing trade between India and the western Indian Ocean region, extending from the Somali Horn up to the Red Sea route to Egypt, and including other African littoral countries.
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By the 17th century, Indian slaves constituted a large population of enslaved people brought to the Cape of Good Hope. Data on British, Dutch, French, and Portuguese slave trading in the Indian Ocean indicate that between 1500 and 1850, Europeans shipped between 431,000 to 547,000 slaves of African, Indian, and Southeast Asian origins to destinations within the Oceanic basin.
Colonial Era and the Rise of Solidarity
A significant portion of African territories fell under British colonial rule, many of them colonized long after India. The Indian National Congress (INC) inspired Africans to fight for liberation from colonial rule and was seen as a role model for gaining independence by African liberation movements. At its national Calcutta session in 1920, the INC officially linked its struggle with world struggles against imperialism and colonialism.
Under Gandhi and later Nehru, the INC fiercely opposed the British government's racist policies in Africa, consistently passing resolutions against discrimination prevalent in South Africa and Kenya. The main architect of the INC policy towards Africa was Jawaharlal Nehru, who believed that the independence of India would affect the position of other countries under colonial rule.
Mahatma Gandhi played a key role in connecting Africa and India because his philosophy appealed to people across the world, especially African liberation leaders. He lived in South Africa as a lawyer in 1893 and spent the next 21 years fighting racial discrimination. It was in South Africa that he coined his concept of Satyagraha-a non-violent protest against injustice, civil disobedience, and mass mobilization.
Once it gained independence in 1947, India was one of the first countries to support the African National Congress (ANC). As Apartheid took center stage, India severed its economic, political, and cultural-sporting relations with the South African government. India also championed South Africa’s independence at forums such as the UN General Assembly and the Non-Aligned Movement.
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Post-Cold War Era and Evolving Relations
However, the relationship has swung from a period of great emotional and political solidarity in the 1950s and 1960s to selective engagement in the 1970s and 1980s. In the post-Cold War era, with the emergence of an independent Namibia and a democratic South Africa, the main agenda that had brought India and Africa together-the fight against colonialism and institutionalized racialism-has disappeared.
In the post-Cold War era in Africa, there is a growing perception that it was marginalized, both politically and economically. Politically, Africans felt relieved that Super Power domination in the continent had ended, but there is a feeling that they are of little strategic importance to the major powers. Economically, Africa is of little importance to the major players in the world economy-the Western economies, the multinational corporations, and the banking institutions.
Nevertheless, on the positive side, the continent has witnessed a trend towards democratization that is visible in multi-party elections across the continent and the emergence of a democratic South Africa. It is also visible in the launch of the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) through the joint efforts of South Africa and Senegal. This action plan promises to remove the tag of the 'Hopeless Continent'.
India's Africa Policy in the Post-Cold War Era
India's Africa policy indicates a slight change as also some consistency in the post-Cold War era. It appears to be composed of five mantras: promoting economic cooperation, engaging the people of Indian origin, preventing and combating terrorism, preserving peace and assisting the African defense forces.
In the early 1990s the government stressed that, " ... India engaged Africa economically through technical assistance, training and trade. India has extended technical assistance to African countries under the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme and the Special Commonwealth Africa Assistance Plan (SCAAP). The fastest growing segment of ITEC is consultancy and project assistance. This involves preparation of feasibility studies, project reports, setting up pilot projects and research centres in the agricultural sector, etc. A number of African countries have received assistance in this area. In the 1990s, a number of projects were initiated with Indian help. In 1994, the government launched a programme for cooperation with select African countries for the development of small-scale industries (SSI). These countries were Nigeria, Senegal, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Ghana and Ethiopia. The government offered finance for implementation of these programmes under ITEC. A small-scale industry development project is also under execution in Zimbabwe.
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From the mid-1990s, organizations like the Confederation of Indian Industries (CII), The Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry (ASSOCHAM), the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) and the Federation of Indian Exporters' Organisation (FIEO) identified Africa as a thrust area and launched programmes to promote economic and business cooperation. This included exchange of information, conducting one-to-one business meetings and organising activities like 'Made in India' shows across Africa.
- US $6 million EXIM line of Credit to PTA countries: In September 1992, the EXIM Bank signed an agreement with the Preferential Trade Area (PTA) Bank to extend an US $ 6 million line of credit to members of the PTA only for import of capital goods from India.
- Revolving Fund for Africa: In 1996, Prime Minister, H.D. Deve Gowda announced at the G-15 Summit in Harare the creation of a revolving fund of Rs.
- Meeting of HoMs/Commercial Representatives: Meeting of Heads of Missions (HoMs) / commercial representatives of Indian missions in Eastern and Southern Africa under the Chairmanship of the Minister of State for Commerce Industry was held in June 2000.
- Focus Africa: The Focus Africa programme was launched as part of the EXIM Policy 2002-2003. Encouraged by the Focus initiative in Latin America, the government launched a Focus Africa initiative. Selected Indian missions will provide business promotion services to visiting Indian exporters/businessmen at a nominal fee by setting up business centres. The first phase of Focus Africa will focus on Nigeria, South Africa, Kenya, Mauritius, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Ghana.
Overall, the trade between India and Sub-Saharan Africa has grown from US$ 893 million in 1991-92 to US$ 3,390 million in 2000-2001, registering as increase of more than 280 per cent in 9 years. Nigeria, Mauritius, Kenya, Tanzania and Ghana have been the major trading partners during this period. Most of our imports from Africa consist of minerals, petroleum products and raw materials, while our exports are textiles, pharmaceuticals, engineering goods, etc. Despite the number of initiatives launched by the Indian government, Indian exports are still a miniscule part of total African imports.
The Indian Commerce Minister feels that Indian exports to Africa are sub-optimal. The problems of trading with Africa are well known-large payments to Indian exporters being stuck due to foreign exchange crunch; language problem; lack of awareness about the African potential, ongoing conflicts; and lack of direct shipping lines to Africa. The competition in trading with Africa is indeed hotting up.
India - Africa Partnership for Progress
The good news is that Indian textile exporters need to take advantage of the opportunity to export goods to the US without restrictions, through the African Growth and Opportunities Act (AGOA), signed in 2000. Thirty-five countries in Africa are eligible for AGOA, but only 17 have qualified for exporting to the US through AGOA. Countries like China and Malaysia have got excited with AGOA and plan to increase investments in Africa.
This landmark judgement has opened the gates for pharmaceutical exports from India of generic AIDS drugs to Africa. These anti-retroviral drugs, or ARVs, could be supplied by the Indian companies at a fraction of the cost of Western drugs. Nigeria was the first country to import these from Cipla and Ranbaxy. India has seven pharmaceutical companies manufacturing ARVs. Leading pharma companies showcased their capabilities and products. At the end of the Summit the ground was laid for joint ventures in African countries. South Africa and Kenya have signed agreements for joint ventures with Indian firms.
India has made a name in Information Technology and there is good scope for IT exports to Africa. The Economic Commission of Africa (ECA) has launched an initiative to accelerate the adoption of information systems in Africa. This new initiative offers to promote and protect democracy and human rights undertakes in exchange for sustained levels of aid, investment and economic engagement with the developed world. A summit with the investors was organised in Dakar in April 2002. Subsequently, the Africans have engaged the G8 countries, the European Union and India. Among the G8 countries, Japan has been actively supporting the cause of African development. In 1993 the first Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD) was held.
The government of India has tried to engage people of Indian origin (PIO) in the post-Cold War era. While the Congress government's approach was cautious, the BJP government has turned the policy around. The PIOs are now the focus of the government's foreign policy initiatives in different regions of the world. It also offered a PIO Card. However, at US$ 1,000 there were very few takers. The Global Organisation for People of Indian Origin (GOPIO) called for a reduction to US$ 250.
The mandate of the committee was to make a comprehensive study of the global Indian diaspora and to recommend measures for a constructive relationship. The report was submitted on January 8, 2002. The government has accepted most of these recommendations. In keeping with the suggestions, the government organised three-day long celebrations commemorating the Pravasi Bhartiya Divas in January 2003.
The recommendations of the high-level committee has led to a debate and one view is that they seem to benefit the NRI/PIOs in Europe and America more than those in Africa. Organisations like GOPIO have welcomed the dual citizenship move. It seems to have created three categories of PIO's-one, people who live either in Europe or North America who can claim dual citizenship; two, those who have Indian nationality only (e.g., those in the Gulf); and three, people who only have the citizenship of the countries of residence (e.g. Africa and the Caribbean).
In the past the people of Indian origin in East Africa suffered due to the fluctuating policies of the Government of India. After independence, these PIOs had assumed that the Government of India would come to their rescue when they were in trouble. However, India overlooked them in its bid to cultivate relations with the Africans.
The September 11 terrorist attacks demonstrated the destructive power of terrorists. India strongly condemned these attacks, as did the African countries. Africa came to the limelight when the US embassies in Tanzania and Kenya were attacked in August 1998. About twelve people lost their lives in the attack. Sudan and Somalia figure prominently in that list. Sudan was declared a rogue state by the US because it provided a safe haven to a number of terrorist organisations, including the Al Qaida. Osama bin Laden was quite active in Sudan from 1991-96.
Nevertheless, the Sudanese and the Somalian governments joined other African countries in condemning the terrorist attacks against the US. In the war against terrorism, most of the African countries have pledged non-military support to the United States government. The September 11 attacks and the subsequent attacks on the Indian parliament on December 13, 2001, have added a new dimension to India-Africa relations.
India's Strategic Engagements in Africa
Thanks, in part, to heavy Indian lobbying, the African Union was included as a full member of the G-20 at the New Delhi Summit in September 2023. Calling Africa “India’s top priority,” Prime Minister Narendra Modi, said, “When we use the term ‘Global South,’ it is not just a diplomatic term. … In our shared history, we have together opposed colonialism and apartheid. It was on the soil of Africa that Mahatma Gandhi used powerful methods of non-violence and peaceful resistance. It is on this strong foundation of history that we are shaping our modern relations.”
The next triennial India-Africa Forum Summit is planned for 2024. In January 2023, 47 African countries attended the Voice of the Global South Summit. In June 2023, African and Indian government, private sector, and industry leaders converged in New Delhi for the 18th India-Africa Conclave hosted by the India Export Import (EXIM) Bank in partnership with India’s foreign and trade ministries.
India-Africa trade has grown 18 percent annually since 2003, reaching $103 billion in 2023. This makes India Africa’s third largest trading partner after the European Union and China.
African Union Commissioner for Trade and Industry Fatima Haram Acyl (left) and India Minister of State for External Affairs Vijay Kumar Singh (center) at the Third India-Africa Forum Summit in October in New Dehli, India.
India is also the second largest lender in Africa, with strong public-private partnerships and safeguards protecting borrowers from debt distress. In fact, most Indian aid is channeled through the African Development Bank (ADB), which New Delhi joined in 1983. India’s total investments in Africa amount to $70 billion, a figure the powerful Confederation of Indian Industry aims to increase to $150 billion by 2030.
“India’s unique story in Africa gives texture to its strategic engagement,” notes Aly-Khan Satchu, a Kenyan Indian and leading entrepreneur and investor. “Indian-Africans occupy a fascinating space in Africa’s landscape,” explains Veda Vaidyanathan, an associate fellow at the Centre for Social and Economic Progress (CSEP) in New Delhi and Harvard University’s Asia Center. They are an essential part of Africa’s middle class and play a major role in education, health, industrialization, and trade as well as participate in politics and serve in the military.
Abhishek Mishra, an associate fellow at the Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses says that India’s global ambitions rest on South-South cooperation, which hinges on an “ascendant India and a resurgent Africa.” Hence, the thrust of India’s Africa policy is to “develop together as equals.” These are fleshed out in the “Kampala Principles,” 10 core tenets articulated by Prime Minister Modi during his address to Uganda’s Parliament in July 2018.
Areas of Focus and Cooperation
India traditionally focused on East and Southern Africa due to maritime proximity across the Indian Ocean and the large Indian diaspora. Over time, India expanded its engagements to over 44 countries thanks to the Ministry of External Affairs’ Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC), which, since 1964, has devoted more than a third of its accounts to African countries in four areas: capacity building, project assistance, scholarships, and institution-building. It has trained over 200,000 civilian and defense professionals from 160 countries-mostly in Africa and Asia.
India's EXIM Bank has devoted 50 percent of its international financing, technical assistance, and trade promotion schemes to Africa. Africa’s largest digital project, the Pan African e-Network, is connecting Africa’s 54 countries to India and one another to share expertise in telecoms, medicine, health, resource mapping, and e-governance.
The prioritization of Africa within India’s investments is one of the reasons why India has consistently been perceived as a trusted ally in Africa. India enjoys observer status in the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
Most of Africa’s 3-million-strong Indian population descended from Indian indentured workers brought to Africa by the British during the early 18th century. Long before that, however, African communities were taken to India through the Arab slave trade. Their descendants-one of India’s minority populations-are called Sidhis.
“One thing we hear from African colleagues is that India does not act or speak like a donor,” says Veda Vaidyanathan. “It focusses on creating space to work together as equals, enabling the African side to exert agency and leadership, while India facilitates.”
India also leverages its unique access to African grassroots communities. An illustration of this is the Solar Mamas Project, a people-to-people venture in Rajasthan, India, created by Barefoot College in Tiloniya, so-named to reflect its grassroots focus. Veda Vaidyanathan explains: “This College equips women from impoverished communities in India and faraway African towns as solar engineers. After training together for 6 months, they go back to electrify their villages, earning them the title of ‘Solar Mamas.’”
Recognizing this project’s game-changing potential to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, the Indian government helped extend it to 36 African countries. This dovetails with the objectives of India’s International Solar Alliance to assist 733 million people who live without power-the vast majority from Africa-to switch to renewable energy.
India also sponsors a robust pipeline of African students in India, a practice built in Nehru’s time and sustained throughout. Indian teachers and university faculty were also a critical part of the diaspora who came after the commercial Indian settlers in East and Southern Africa. In Senegal, the first president, Leopold Senghor, established a university exchange between his country and India for Indo-African studies, supported by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
Defense and Security Cooperation
Abhishek Mishra notes that defense and security have emerged as a key pillar of India-Africa relations. This was underscored in March 2023, when the two sides convened the first ever India-Africa Army-Chiefs Conclave, alongside the second edition of the Africa-India Field Training Exercise (AFINDEX), held over 10 days in Pune, India. The two sides also conduct an annual India-Africa Defence Dialogue (IADD) that coincides with India’s Defence Expo.
India’s October 2022 “Gandhinagar Declaration” calls for more professional military education (PME) training slots for African countries under ITEC. Additionally, India and Africa engage in “specialized training and joint research in new areas like artificial intelligence, cyber security, munition systems, maritime surveillance, unmanned vehicles, space, and undersea scanning technologies,” explains Mishra.
African navies have participated in all 47 editions of India’s Maritime Partnership Exercise (MPX) in the Western Indian Ocean. Among its key outcomes is a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with Tanzania and Kenya on shipbuilding and port development.
Naval Ship Sumedha at Port Lamu in Kenya in December 2023.
In line with its policy of “developing together as equals,” India focusses most of its security assistance on building partner self-sufficiency. This has led to the deployment of Indian technicians to strengthen African capacity to repair and maintain equipment, dock facilities, boats, tanks, guns, and aircraft. India also supplies hardware like offshore patrol craft, combat helicopters, interceptor boats, and armored vehicles.
The Future of Indo-African Relations
Sanusha Naidu, a third-generation South African-Indian and Senior Associate at South Africa’s Institute for Global Dialogue contends that, “The African Union should integrate key initiatives like the African Continental Free Trade Area and New Partnership for African Development into the larger Africa-India partnership. There is appetite on the Indian side for this type of partner agency and leadership.”
Aly-Khan Satchu calls for a closer “triangulation” on all sides. “Indian diasporas have an embedded inclination to reach out to their home governments and connect them to the Indian government and private sector. However, this is not being fully leveraged, and it is only recently that Indian and African colleagues moved on this with greater intentionality.”
Abhishek Mishra says that the Indian private sector should diversify into new areas in Africa in addition to traditional ones like pharmaceuticals, education, and agriculture. “African countries are also wary of taking more ... The relationship between India and Africa has been shaped through common experiences of colonialism, solidarity in the Non-Aligned movement and in forms of developmental diplomacy.
As Africa continues to undergo demographic and economic change, India will be prepared to sign up as a cooperative and credible partner. The connection is not based on promises of charity or assistance but on mutual values and interests that co-create a sustainable future together. The Indian initiatives are sensitive in scale and design but are usually well recognised as restocking long-term capacity, maintaining long-term and continuous relevance to the local community.
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