Beads hold immense cultural, historical, and archaeological importance in Ghana. Their use and trade have spanned hundreds of years across the globe. In Ghana, beads are valued not only for their aesthetic appeal but also for their individuality, specific names, and meanings.
Beads can be crafted from various materials. Stone and glass beads are particularly resilient, making them prominent finds in archaeological records. The bead collection in museums primarily consists of glass beads, which originate from three main sources:
- Glass beads traded over the Sahara from Egypt, the Middle East, and Islamic sources.
- Glass beads traded over the sea from Europe, particularly Venice (Italy), Bohemia, and Holland.
- Glass beads made in West Africa, predominantly in Ghana.
Beads at Makola Market, Accra
The Allure and Trade of Beads
The popularity of glass and stone beads as trading items stems from their resistance to temperature, humidity, and insect damage. As Sleen eloquently puts it, the bow drill is nearly as old as civilization, allowing ornamental stones like agate to be pierced and strung long before the pyramids were built. In Cambay, India, carnelian stone beads have been crafted for the last 7,000 years.
Ghanaian ethnic groups stand out in two significant ways regarding bead usage. First, beads are valued for their intrinsic worth, not merely for creating patterns en masse. Unlike bead use by North American Indians, southern Africans, and the Yoruba, Ghanaian ethnic groups did not use many small beads to create patterns. Second, a thriving local glass bead-making industry has existed for many years. The origins of this industry are debated, particularly concerning the source of glass before the influx of European trade beads. However, certain imported beads were highly sought after for reuse in local glass bead making.
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Local Bead Making in Ghana
Ghanaian bead makers utilize powdered or fragmented glass, placing it in molds and heating it in a kiln, rather than working with molten glass. This method contrasts with most other regions where glass beads are made by blowing, winding, drawing out, or mold-pressing hot molten glass. The only other place where glass powder is used is in Mffa, Mauritania, but the industry there is not as vibrant as in Ghana.
Changes in the Bead Making Industry
The two primary centers for glass bead making today are in the Krobo and Ashanti traditional areas. However, historical reports indicate that in the 1930s, glass bead making occurred near the C6te d’Ivoire border, and techniques used in the Ashanti area differed from those used today.
In an attempt to understand the use of beads in Ghana, interviews were conducted with Krobo queen mothers and traditional priests. This emphasis on the Krobo traditional area is due to the high number of bead producers in Krobo and the prominent Dipo custom, which is one of the most well-known bead-wearing occasions in Ghana.
Krobo Beads
The Journey of Beads to Ghana
To understand how beads arrived in Ghana, bead traders and importers were interviewed. Traders travel across West Africa, buying and selling beads, both old and new, acting as modern-day equivalents of the trans-Saharan traders. Bead importers and wholesalers primarily deal in European beads, awaiting shipments from Europe in the cities. This business thrived during colonial times but declined after independence.
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The Process of Bead Making in Ghana
Interviews were conducted with Krobo bead makers, including the acting queen mother of the Osu Panya division of the Manya Krobo, who are the first bead makers in the Krobo traditional area.
West African trade in glass beads can be categorized into distinct historical periods, starting with Islamic bead production and trade after A.D. 800. The Islamic faith, originating in Arabia in the seventh century, spread to Africa, Asia, Southeast Europe, and China. Glassmaking centers were established in Egypt, Syria, and the Levant (Lebanon). Cairo became a significant center for bead makers between A.D. 900 and 1000, importing and trading coral, pearls, cowry shells, and African ivory. Arab merchants crossed the Sahara with beads from Cairo and India, trading them for gold, ivory, and slaves.
The Arrival of European Traders
The arrival of European trading ships on the West African coast in the late 1400s ended the Arab monopoly on the West African trade. The Portuguese were the first to arrive, followed by the Danes, Dutch, French, Belgians, and Germans. Explorers, discoverers, and settlers brought glass beads as gifts and items for barter, using them as payment for gold, ivory, slaves, and salt. These beads were primarily Venetian, including chevrons, and are often indistinguishable from those found in African archaeological sites of the same period. The Dutch and Eastern European artisans soon copied the early Venetian beads.
The importance of the bead trade to Europeans lay not in the quantity of beads traded but in the equality of the exchange, which made the trade so profitable. The inequality of exchange was well understood. For example, a French commercial guide from the 1720s listed thirty-seven types of glass beads favored by the Senegalese for the slave trade, noting that 3,000 French pounds of seed beads could be exchanged for 612 male slaves in Angola, provided the beads were carefully selected.
The quantity of beads sold into West Africa between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries remained low due to control by the chiefs through sumptuary laws. These laws dictated what types of beads and cloth people could wear according to their rank. In the old kingdom of Benin (now in Nigeria), color beads were highly prized and controlled. The number of coral beads worn by an official indicated their rank, with unauthorized wearers facing execution. Seventeenth-century records mention the 'coral feast' where the Oba (king) would bestow the 'honor of beads' upon his officials.
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By the nineteenth century, many restrictions vanished as colonial governments wrested power from the chiefs, emphasizing commerce and seeking markets for their goods. Bead production became more industrialized, increasing variety and reducing costs, leading to a flood of Venetian, Bohemian, and Dutch glass beads in East and West Africa.
Between 1827 and 1841, the Gold Coast (present-day southern Ghana) imported an average of 74,952 pounds (34 metric tons) of glass beads per year. In 1846, the value of glass beads represented 15.7 percent of all imports to the Gold Coast.
Modern Bead Production in Ghana
Most glass beads made in Ghana today are produced either by the Asante people, in villages south and west of Kumasi, or by the Krobo people, in villages in the Akuapem hills and coastal plains east of Accra.
The heart of a bead factory is a kiln, built from clay, earth, and sometimes old car parts for rigidity. Glass pieces are placed in molds and heated in the kiln to fuse or sinter the glass without melting it completely. The size of a factory is determined by the number of kilns and master craftsmen. The kilns are located outside under shade structures.
The Making Of Krobo Beads
Beads in Ghana are produced by recycling glass. Small, single-colored beads from Bohemia in the Czech Republic are used as raw material for colors not available otherwise. Ceramic dyes are now used with clear powdered glass to produce a wider range of colored beads, though these are not translucent.
While some bead factories are large, with multiple kilns and workers, others have only a single kiln. Many producers have moved to towns at the bottom of the foothills due to better roads, proximity to Accra, a good market at Agomanya, and better access for traders. However, many producers remain in Upper Nlanya.
Francis (1993) suggested that there were as many as eleven Asante villages making beads, with Dabaa acknowledged as the earliest bead-making village. Asante beads, while made by similar methods, look distinct from Krobo beads.
After production, the beads are polished, threaded, and sold in strings or bracelets. The main bead markets for Krobo bead sellers are the Thursday market in Koforidua and the Wednesday and Saturday market in Agomanya. In the early twentieth century, the market at Asesewa was also very large but has lost prominence due to the introduction of vehicles and lack of roads in Upper Manya.
The busiest time of year for bead producers and sellers is the celebration of the Dipo custom, though all festivals and large funerals increase the demand for beads. The stories of these bead producers suggest that it is possible to make a good living from bead production, but it is not easy work.
Trade Beads and Their History
The term "Trade Beads" typically refers to beads made predominantly in Venice and Bohemia, as well as other European countries, from the late 1400s through the early 1900s, which were traded in Africa and the Americas. Many of these beads have also been attributed to Germany, France, and the Netherlands.
The peak of this "trade" period occurred from the mid-1800s through the early 1900s, during which millions of these beads were produced and traded in Africa. The Venetians dominated this market, producing the majority of the beads sold during this time. Companies like J.F. Sick and Co., based in Germany and Holland, were among the largest bead brokers and importers during this period. Moses Lewin Levin, a bead importer and exporter, operated out of London from 1830 to 1913.
The popularity of these beads was revived in the late 1960s when they began to be exported from Africa to the United States and Europe. The term "Trade Beads" became very popular during this time and is still used for the same bead reference today. Millefiori beads were also called "Love Beads" and used in necklaces with peace symbols during the Hippie era.
As the popularity and availability of these old beads grew, they started getting "named," with terms like "Russian Blues," "Dutch Donuts," and "King Beads" emerging. While some of these names are folkloric and meaningless, they often describe a specific type of bead.
Today, these beads are more popular and collectible than ever, with thousands of them in private collections around the world.
The Significance of Beads and Beadwork in Africa
The materials used in making beads and beadwork are incredibly diverse, ranging from bone to glass. The colors, sizes, significance of the materials, and placement of beads all contribute to their meaning. Beads can denote perspective, experience, feelings, beliefs, desires, and power.
The origin of beads and beadwork in Africa dates back to the beginning of civilization, possibly as far as 10,000 BC. Much beadwork on the continent still consists of natural materials such as bone, coral, horn, ivory, seeds, shells, stones, and pearls, emphasizing the beadwork’s meaning. In contemporary times, beads are also produced from synthetic materials like glass, plastic, and alloy metals, sourced from China, Hungary, India, and Poland.
Important historical sites where beads have been found include Mapungubwe in South Africa and Great Zimbabwe.
Various Uses of Beads in African Culture
- Prayer or Spiritual Representation: Many sangomas/n’angas (traditional healers) wear distinctive amulets and beadwork to identify themselves and aid in their work. Bead colors are chosen based on an individual’s characteristics and ailments. Novice sangomas wear single strings of white beads, while experienced healers wear more elaborate beadwork with variant colors and materials. Beads are also used in rituals to determine one’s fortune.
- Anti-Tension Devices: Worry beads are used in Greek (Cretian) culture for relaxation, enjoyment, and as an amulet against bad luck.
- Currency: Aggri beads from Ghana were used for exchange and payment during early trade in Africa. Beads were also used in the slave trade.
- Medicinal Purposes: Aggri beads, dzi beads, echinacea beans, and amber beads are consumed or adorned for medicinal purposes. Some medicines are prepared into amulets with beaded exteriors.
- Adornment: Historically, beadwork was the insignia of tribal royalty. In contemporary southern Africa, beads and seeds have experienced a revival in popularity and are visible in everyday dress patterns.
- Souvenirs and Awareness: Contemporary uses include beaded souvenirs made of wire or fishing twine, decorative and awareness bangles and bracelets, and toys.
In South Africa, Zulu 'love letters,' where the colors reflect the ardour and nature of one’s feelings, are still popular. Elaborate beadwork costumes and body ornaments continue to be created for daily use, traditional ceremonies, or to celebrate matrimony and rites of passage.
Waist beads have a long history in Africa and are worn for various reasons:
- Rites of Passage: Mothers adorn their daughters with waist beads during their first menstruation.
- Seduction: Waist beads possess intimate appeal and can provoke desire.
- Healing: When stones are added, waist beads take on healing qualities.
- Body Shaping: The beads alert women to weight gain or pregnancy.
Waist Beads
Waist beads are commonly made of glass, metal, crystals, gemstones, charms, wood, or plastics, strung on cotton thread, twine, wire, or cord. Modern-day people from many African cultures wear waist beads, including Ghanaians, Senegalese, Igbos, Yorubas, Ewes, Ashantis, Krobos, Swahilis, Mijikenda, and Ga-Adangbes.
In Ghanaian culture, women begin to wear waist beads as they age and on orders from their mothers, as part of the rite of passage during puberty, associated with fertility and marriage. The initiation ceremony held for a young woman is called Dipo, during which beads are worn on the neck, ankles, and waist. Waist beads are often worn to represent luck and are commonly made of seeds, seashells, glass pieces, teeth, ivory, and stones. They are often hand-painted, with the size signifying a woman's level of sexual maturity.
In Yoruba culture, waist beads are part of the rite of passage for young women, worn as symbols of confidence, femininity, fertility, and well-being. The Hausa people also use beads on different parts of the body for various purposes, including warding off evil and preserving virginity.
The purpose and meaning of waist beads are individual to the wearer but may represent personal beliefs or cultural heritage, often expressed through the choice of colors and materials. In many cultures, they signify the beginning of womanhood and represent fertility.
The Spiritual Meaning of Waist Beads
Many people believe waist beads have spiritual purposes, including energy balancing, protection, and intention setting. They're often associated with the sacral chakra and are thought to help with creativity, emotional balance, and spiritual connection. Some wear waist beads as a form of prayer or meditation, using them to stay connected to their spiritual practice throughout the day.
Contemporary Uses of Waist Beads
In our contemporary world, the meaning behind waist beads has beautifully expanded beyond their traditional roles. One of the most powerful contemporary meanings of waist beads is body positivity and self-acceptance. Many people today wear waist beads as a form of self-expression and personal style, showcasing their individuality, creativity, and personal aesthetic.
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