In Ethiopia, few figures are as revered as Menelik II (1844-1913), the second-to-last reigning monarch of Ethiopia. Like Menelik I of the 10th century BC, the legendary son of King Solomon from whom he took his regal name, Menelik II traced his descent to the Solomonic line of kings. On November 3, 1889, Menelik II was crowned King of Kings and Emperor of Ethiopia, with the additional royal sobriquet of “the Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah.”
The coronation, which took place in the great Entotto Mariam Church in Addis Ababa, was captured for posterity by the Italian artist Pio Joris (1843-1921) and subsequently reproduced in chromolithograph images, today exceedingly rare. The artist depicted the entire royal entourage in gorgeous color and detail. On the left and right, we see the two leaders of the Ethiopian Orthodox faith: the Archbishop of Alexandria and the Bishop of Ethiopia; the two lions of Judah, traditional symbol of the Solomonic line of kingship; and the “negarit” drums and the drummers.
The illustration commemorates the Wuchale Peace Treaty May 1889, by which the King sought to come to an agreement with Italy and avert warfare. We see a Star of Solomon with a cross in the middle in the upper left-hand corner; two important symbols signaling the marriage between the Old and New Testament in Ethiopian culture.
The Crucial Year of 1896
The year 1896 was a crucial year for Europe as a whole, and for Italy in particular. In that year, Italy was defeated by Ethiopia at the Battle of Adwa, signaling the end of the “might is right” era assumed by the European powers of the day. The defeat of the Italians was a major blow to the industrial world because it heralded the beginning of resistance against the industrial powers and the struggle for independence by the colonized African nations.
In the painting shown here, St. George appears at the very apex, a reference to the proverbial Ethiopian belief that the Italians were defeated thanks to divine intervention. French artist Charles Leandre painted a caricature of Menelik.
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In the aftermath of the war, Pope Leo XIII and King Menelik exchanged letters to effect the release of Italian Prisoners of War, and the Vatican turned to the Church of Alexandria for help with mediation. Trade cards of the day reflect current events in brightly colored images.
Negotiations between the two dignitaries bore results. Illustration of the jubilant prisoners of war when released. [Supplement Illustre du Petit Journal, Nov. 29, 1896].
Adwa Victory Day: A National Holiday
Adwa Victory Day is a national holiday in Ethiopia, which is observed on March 2 every year. This day celebrates Ethiopia’s victory over Italy in the year 1896. Ethiopia was able to defeat Italian forces and secure victory in the northern town of Adwa after many years of conflict and war with Italy. People pay tribute to their ancestors who helped present-day Ethiopians secure their independence from European rule by coming out into the streets, having parades, and telling old tales.
This day is an important milestone as it stands for the celebration of Ethiopian sovereignty. Adwa Victory Day is a symbol of African resistance against colonial powers. It all started when Ethiopia, a country made up of semi-independent kingdoms, was under the rule of the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II in the 19th century. In 1889, the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II signed the Treaty of Wuchale with Italy for additional financial and military support. However, plans changed when it was discovered that there were significant differences between the Italian version of the treaty and the Ethiopian one. This misinterpretation led to the First Italo-Ethiopian War in the year 1895.
The Italians had some initial success in the war but in the Battle of Adwa, the Ethiopian troops were able to completely defeat their opponents. The Battle proved to be a decisive defeat for the Italians and forced them to retreat to their native lands. It was the first victory of an African country over a European colonial power. Another treaty was then signed in October 1896, in which Italy recognized Ethiopia as an independent state.
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The Treaty of Wichale
Ethiopia is a sovereign nation with a strong monarch and a formidable army. The misinterpretation of the wording of the Treaty of Wuchale leads to the First Italo-Ethiopian War.
Italy pretended to be a great ally to Lord Menelik of Shewa (who was planning to take over the whole of Ethiopia). A premeditated plan to entrap him with a treaty that would allow him bring in ammunition to fight against other lords but mainly Ras Mengesha Yohannes of the North.
Menelik signed the treaty of “diplomacy” known as the Wichale, assuming Italy would help him in his fight to unify and rule the country which was under great power struggle between rival lords at the time. However, article XVII of the Treaty of Wichale or (Uccialli Trattato in Italian), had two versions.
- The Amharic version states: ‘The Emperor has the option to communicate with the help of the Italian government for all matters that he wants with the kings of Europe.’
- The Italian version of article XVII stated, ‘The Emperor consents to use the Italian government for all the business he does with all the other Powers or Governments.’
In a devious ploy, the Italian government peddled the Treaty of Wichale as legal proof that Menelik had given way too much power to the government of Italy. Many attempts by Menelik failed to correct the misinterpretation of the text, but indemnified the Italians with the right to invade Ethiopia. The trick was eminently simple, the kind that had been played on native rulers by European traders and settlers for centuries. As far as Italy was concerned, The Ethiopians were nothing more than unsophisticated barbarians.
Menelik called upon his people from every corner of the country to join him at this determining instant, saying “Enemies have come who would ruin our country and change our religion. They have passed beyond the sea which God gave us as our frontier…. These enemies have advanced, burrowing into the country like moles. With God’s help and your assistance I will get rid of them”!!! And so the Battle of Adowa took place on the 29th of February 1886 (during the night).
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The Battle of Adwa
The angry and intolerant people of Ethiopia who fought against the well-equipped Italian troops, included men, women, the old, disabled, monks and priests. Most of them armed with just machetes and knifes.
The Battle of Adowa cost the lives of 289 Italian officers and 2,918 European soldiers, an additional 954 European troops could not be found, while 470 Italians were wounded. Some 700 Italians fell into the hands of the Ethiopian troops. About 70 Italians were tortured to death before Menelik discovered it and put a stop to it. From the Ethiopian side an estimated 7,000 warriors died at the battle, and 10,000 were wounded.
After the end of the war, Italian and other European soldiers were released in exchange for payment of a 10 million lire ‘reparation’ by the Italian government. The political consequences of the defeat were even greater. After news of the devastation reached the ears of the people of Italy, angry crowds protested against their government. Humiliated by the absolute failure of his colonial policy, Prime Minister Crispi and his cabinet resigned.
The Battle of Adwa was fought by the Ethiopian Empire, which was then known as Abyssinia, and Italy on March 1, 1896, near Adwa, Ethiopia, as the concluding battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War (1895-1896). The conflict saw the Ethiopian army of one hundred thousand soldiers led by Emperor Menelik II successfully repel the invading Italian force of about seventeen thousand troops, who were attempting to colonize Ethiopia. Menelik won a decisive victory in the battle, securing Ethiopia's sovereignty and rebuffing Italy's colonization efforts in the country.
How Did Italy Lose to Ethiopia at The Battle of Adwa 1896
Italy's humiliating loss at the Battle of Adwa made headlines worldwide. Many Europeans and Americans were astonished that an African people, whom many Westerners believed were inferior to them, had defeated a European power militarily. Italy retained its existing colonies in East Africa into the mid-twentieth century, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini conquered Ethiopia in the years prior to World War II (1939-1945). Into the twenty-first century, Ethiopians celebrated their nation's victory at Adwa annually on March 2.
Background of the Battle
The Battle of Adwa, and the larger First Italo-Ethiopian War, resulted from years of conflict between Italy and Ethiopia. The Italian government determined by the mid-1880s that it wanted to create an overseas colonial empire as the United Kingdom and France had. Beginning in the 1870s, these nations and others in Western Europe had started competing for foreign colonies as sources of international prestige, raw manufacturing materials, and, ultimately, income.
To Europeans in the late nineteenth century, Africa appeared primed for colonization. It was rich in natural resources and promised large new consumer populations for European goods. This craze for African colonies became known as the "scramble for Africa," since multiple European powers suddenly started competing fiercely to stake land claims in Africa and set up their own economic systems. The United Kingdom, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, and several other countries all entered this competition around the same time.
The completion of Egypt's Suez Canal in 1869 attracted Italy to the African colonization fray. The canal meant that the Red Sea, situated north of the Horn of Africa on the continent's northeastern coast, was now a potentially lucrative shipping route. Italy took over the city of Massawa, a strategic port on the Red Sea coast, in 1885. Italian forces expanded from there, eventually occupying regions south and west of the city. Italy established the colony of Eritrea in 1890.
Italian forces moved south into the northern Ethiopian region of Tigray soon after occupying Massawa. Ethiopia's emperor, Yohannes IV, responded fiercely to this violation of Ethiopian sovereignty. He persuaded his people in Tigray to attack the Italians if they attempted to advance farther south. Italian troops eventually did this, and they skirmished with Ethiopian forces numerous times into the late 1880s.
Yohannes was killed in a battle with African rivals in 1889. Menelik II was then crowned emperor of Ethiopia. Menelik was intelligent and a vicious fighter. He knew that Ethiopian sovereignty would be destroyed if he allowed Europeans to colonize his kingdom. Menelik therefore started preparing for war by acquiring modern military rifles and artillery guns from European traders.
The Battle Unfolds
Italy became one of Menelik's weapons suppliers in 1889, after Italian authorities and Menelik signed the Treaty of Wichale together. The Italian government wanted Menelik to believe Ethiopia and Italy could become partners in East Africa. Two copies of the treaty were drawn up for signing, one in Italian and the other in Amharic, the language of Ethiopia. The parties signed both treaties, but the documents were not exactly the same. The Italian version stated that Menelik would have to obtain the consent of the Italian government to negotiate deals with other nations. Menelik's version of the treaty claimed Ethiopia could choose to consult Italy on its decisions.
The treaty allowed Italy to supply Menelik with more of the modern guns he wanted. By the mid-1890s, the Ethiopian army was fully outfitted with an arsenal of advanced weaponry. Menelik eventually discovered that the Italians had deceived him. He openly blamed Italy for its trickery, but few European powers were interested in his complaints.
In 1895, Menelik finally determined that he would drive Italy out of Ethiopia before the Italians fully colonized the country. He gathered an army of one hundred thousand soldiers, all armed with European weapons, and led them into northern Ethiopia, near Eritrea. The Italians, believing their colony was in danger, pursued Menelik from late 1895 to early 1896. Italian commanders realized by February 1896 that they had stretched themselves too thin by chasing the Ethiopians.
Italian general Oreste Baratieri faced a choice. He could attack Menelik's army on an open battlefield or retreat to safety. He decided that on the night of February 29, his army of about seventeen thousand men would advance toward Menelik's camp and establish strong defensive positions. Baratieri hoped this move would persuade Menelik to retreat.
Three Italian brigades had advanced by the early morning of March 1, but the rugged terrain near the northern Ethiopian town of Adwa made communication and coordination difficult. One brigade inadvertently advanced ahead of the others, became separated, and was surprised by the Ethiopian army. Baratieri ordered his second brigade to advance and assist the first, but the Ethiopians intervened and attacked this brigade alone, too.
Menelik commanded about eighty-two thousand soldiers with swords and rifles, twenty thousand spearmen, and eight thousand cavalry against Baratieri's approximately seventeen thousand troops. Menelik engaged each Italian brigade separately, overwhelming them with sheer force of numbers. By later on March 1, Menelik's army had killed about five thousand Italian troops, while about seven thousand Ethiopians died. The Italians frantically retreated to Eritrea.
The Battle of Adwa was a sweeping victory for the Ethiopians. It secured Ethiopia's sovereignty and made the country one of the only African states to withstand European colonization to that point. Meanwhile, the battle humiliated Italy. Baratieri was removed from his military command, and Prime Minister Francesco Crispi resigned. On a larger scale, the Battle of Adwa limited Italy's colonization ambitions in East Africa, holding the country mainly to its Eritrea colony.
Newspapers around the world reported Italy's defeat by Ethiopia. This was particularly newsworthy, as it meant that an African people had been able to defend themselves against a European power. This significantly damaged Italy's credibility among its European peers. In the mid-1930s, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini avenged his country's defeat at Adwa by taking over Ethiopia and holding it as an Italian territory into 1941.
Modern Celebrations
In modern times, Ethiopians celebrate their ancestors' victory at the Battle of Adwa as a day of national pride. Artistic and dramatic performances are also presented, such as kererto, shilela and fukera. All schools, banks, post offices and government offices are closed, with the exception of health facilities. Female performers wear traditional dress called habesha kemis and some wear black gowns over all, while other place royal crowns on their heads to represent Empress Taytu. The celebration takes place not only in Addis Ababa, but also other cities such as Bahir Dar, Debre Markos and Adwa itself.
Every year in March, Ethiopians celebrate their victory at the Battle of Adwa. Monument of Menelik II riding into battle. Addis Ababa; Erected, 1930.
In Addis Ababa, government leaders, diplomats, members of Ethiopian Patriotic Association, and city residents pay tribute to Ethiopian veterans serving in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935-1937) and honor with laying a wreath into memorial monuments across the city.
Patriots' Victory Day
Patriots' Victory Day (Arbegnoch Qen) is a national holiday in Ethiopia on May 5th. This holiday commemorates the end of the Italian occupation on this day in 1941.
As European nations looked to subdue and occupy Africa at the end of the 19th century, Ethiopia entered into an agreement to receive support from Italy in exchange for ceding land in modern-day Eritrea to the Italians.
The Italians then tried to expand their territorial claims leading to the First Italo-Ethiopian War in 1895. This conflict erupted in the Battle of Adwa on March 1st 1896 in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.
The defeat left a scar on Italy and arguably gave rise to Fascism and Benito Mussolini. In October 1935, Mussolini was to exact Italian revenge when he invaded and defeated Ethiopia in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and proclaimed Italian Ethiopia.
When the second world war began, the Ethiopian resistance, the Arbegnoch (literally, "patriots"), with the support of the British were able to restore sovereignty during the East African Campaign. Italian control ended when Emperor Haile Selassie entered Addis Ababa on May 5th (Miaza 27 in the Ethiopian calendar) 1941 and addressed the citizens, saying:
"Today is the day on which we defeated our enemy. Therefore, when we say let us rejoice with our hearts, let not our rejoicing be in any other way but in the spirit of Christ. Do not return evil for evil. Do not indulge in the atrocities which the enemy has been practising in his usual way, even to the last. Take care not to spoil the good name of Ethiopia by acts which are worthy of the enemy. We shall see that our enemies are disarmed and sent out the same way they came."
How is Adwa Victory Day celebrated?
- Talk to people about this dayCommunication is the best way to spread awareness. Let others know about this important day by having a conversation about it.
- Read upTransport yourself to the Battle of Adwa by reading history books about the war. Gain some insight into the many facets of this conflict and the determination of the Ethiopian people.
- Watch a documentary If you love visual storytelling, documentaries are for you. Find a film about this historic day on the internet.
