Egypt's monuments that are with us today are the result of the presence of stone to build them and a desert climate that has preserved them. The climate of Egypt is so dry and rain is so rare in Egypt that millennia-old perishable items like papyrus scrolls have been preserved. Egypt's sands have preserved many monuments. The great Greek 5th century B.C. historian Herodotus devoted nearly all of Book 2 of “History" to describing the achievements and the curiosities of the Egyptians.
Howard Carter opening Tutankhamun's coffin
Early Interest and the Birth of Egyptology
Beginning in the late 1700s, the Middle East and the Ottoman empire began to occupy a space in the Western imagination. According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: What the Grand Tour was to the eighteenth century, the voyage au Levant became for the Romantic generation, a mystical itinerary through Egypt and the Holy Land to the sources of civilization. With the arrival of organized tourism (Thomas Cook offered his first Nile tour in 1869), the pilgrimage of the soul which was the voyage au Levant turned into an exotic vacation.
Candida Moss wrote in the Daily Beast: The European preoccupation with ancient Egypt began in the Napoleonic period. Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt was motivated by a desire to destabilize the British, but when his fleet sank in 1798 at the Battle of the Nile the French rebranded the enterprise as a scientific endeavor. In scientific terms, the French had been successful, it was during this period that they acquired the Rosetta Stone, which they subsequently handed over to the British.
As a result of failed political ambitions, there was a frenzy of interest in Egyptian antiquities. Speaking in 2017, museum curator Tom Hardwick said “Ancient Egypt [was] a way of legitimizing interest [in the country] - by using arguments like: ‘then they built pyramids, now they live in mud huts. It’s clever white people who need to look after this’.” The idea of a lost, technologically sophisticated civilization had a certain romanticism and this was only amplified by myths about the “Curse of the Mummy’s Tomb” and the perceived strangeness of ancient Egyptian religion.
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The science of Egyptology began with Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798-1801. The invasion force included 150 scientists, artists geographers, and linguists, and included some of the greatest minds of Europe. Napoleon effectively abandoned the crew of scholars and scientists in Egypt and the unexpected result was the establishment of formal archaeology as we know it today.
Morgan McFall-Johnsen and Jenny McGrath wrote in Business Insider: Napoleon wanted these "savants," as scientists were called at the time, to focus on projects that could benefit France, such as purifying water from the Nile River, hops-free beer brewing, and better bread ovens. Just a year later, Napoleon secretly returned to France to stage a coup and seize power, leaving his savant squad and 30,000 troops behind. They stayed until defeat forced them to retreat in 1801. While the soldiers fought, some of the savants got busy conducting archaeological surveys.
"Very few of the scholars were antiquarians, those quintessentially eighteenth-century characters, mostly wealthy, who filled their curiosity cabinets with strange old objects picked up on their travels, barely understanding what they had," Nina Burleigh writes in her book, "Mirage," about Napoleon's scientists in Egypt. "Collecting old objects without understanding their use or meaning was a pastime for gentlemen, not a scientific undertaking. " In short, these men were approaching the exploration of Egypt with a different attitude that was more scientific.
Frenchmen headed the Egyptian antiquities department until 1952. When the French were ousted by the British, British scientist arrived on the scene. The Rosseta Stone, but little else, was turned over to the British.Great early French Egyptologist included Jean Francois Champollion (1790-1852), who broke the code on the Rosetta Stone; Vivian Denon, who accompanied Napoleon in 1798 and made many sketches of the great monuments; and Aguste Mariett, who helped assemble the Louvre collection, worked as a curator for the Ottoman Turks and established the first museum of Egyptian antiquities in Cairo in 1856.
At the time of Napoleon’s expedition in Egypt, , many Europeans had heard of the Great Pyramids or the Sphinx, but the ancient temples and monuments of Upper Egypt were unknown. Morgan McFall-Johnsen and Jenny McGrath wrote in Business Insider: Dominique-Vivant Denon, an artist and writer, accompanied Napoleon's soldiers up the Nile. He wrote about rounding a river bend to suddenly see the ancient temples of Karnak and Luxor rising from the ruins of Thebes. "The whole army, suddenly and with one accord, stood in amazement. . . and clapped their hands with delight," he wrote, according to Scientific American. Denon returned to France with Napoleon and quickly published a book with his descriptions and drawings, "Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt."
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That was not enough for Denon, though, who pushed for sending more savants to the Nile to document its monuments in greater detail. Napoleon sent two fresh commissions of savants arrived in Egypt on an archaeological mission in September 1799. This crew of young architects and engineers made careful drawings and measurements of a large number of ancient structures. Their depictions were so faithful that they preserved inscriptions that have since disappeared, according to Scientific American. All these surveys were published in "La Description de l'Egypte," a multi-volume tome that included maps, hundreds of copper engravings, and essays describing what they'd learned about Egypt.
"La Description de l'Egypte" was extremely popular. The structures, symbols, and images of ancient Egypt became fashionable features of European art and architecture. Goaded on by Napoleon's savant expeditions, the European fascination with ancient Egypt gave rise to archaeological museums in Europe, beginning with the Louvre opening the first Egyptian museum in 1827. Eventually, this fascination led to the field of Egyptology, which has been a heavy influence in modern archaeology. "Napoleon's scholars and engineers are remembered most as men who helped found archaeology as a science," Burleigh writes.
Many works of art were snapped up European and American collectors. A 19th century writer wrote of the art market in Thebes: “As workmen, the Copts are perhaps the more artistic. As salesmen, the Arabs are perhaps the least dishonest. Both sell more forgeries than genuine antiquities.” Mummies were unwrapped to look for jewels.
Giovanni Battista Belzoni: The Circus Strongman Turned Archaeologist
Perhaps the greatest rediscover of ancient Egypt was a flamboyant son of a barber named Giovanni Battista Belzoni. Born in Padua, Italy and named after John the Baptist, this six-foot-six former circus giant, who used to carry twelve people around on a stage with a special harness, uncovered many of Egypt's most famous monuments including Abu Simbel, the tomb of Seti I and giant statues of Ramses the Great. After living in Paris and Holland, Belzoni ended up in England where he married an English woman and made a living making fountains with different colored water and playing musical glasses filled with water.
While on tour with a traveling circus, which employed his as the "Patagonian Sampson," Belzoni met the an Albanian soldier of fortune named Mohammed Ali, who later would become the leader of Egypt. While in Egypt Belzoni was hired by a British general counsel named Henry Salt who urged the former circus strongman to collect antiquities "whatever the expense" for "an enlightened nation.” In Luxor Belzoni met another Italian, Bernardino Drovetti, who had been hired by the French to do pretty much the same thing.
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Describing his 1816 discovery of the nine-foot-high head of "Young Memnon," now in the British Museum, Belzoni wrote: "I found it near the remains of its body and chair, with its face upwards, and apparently smiling on me, at the thought of being taken to England...my expectations were exceeded by its beauty, but not by its size." Using "fourteen plows...four ropes of palm leaves and four rollers" he managed to move the head only a "few yards" the first day and 50 yards the next day.
Ramses II at the Louvre
A similar episode occurred while removing an obelisk from the island of Philae near Aswan. "The pier [we had built] appeared quite strong enough...bu...
The Mysteries That Surround The Pyramids & Ancient Egyptians | Ancient History
Recent Archaeological Discoveries
Archaeologists have made remarkable discoveries at the ancient necropolis of Thebes in Luxor, revealing much about the architectural and cultural splendor of Egypt’s New Kingdom. These finds include intact portions of the foundation wall of Queen Hatshepsut’s valley temples and the nearby tomb of Queen Tetisheri, the grandmother of Pharaoh Ahmose I, among other discoveries.
Temple of Hatshepsut in Luxor, Egypt
Over 1,500 decorated stone blocks were unearthed on the perimeter of Hatshepsut’s funerary temple in Deir al-Bahari during excavations led by one of Egypt’s most famous archaeologists and the former minister of antiquities, Zahi Hawass. There are some extraordinary bas-reliefs and inscriptions preserved on the blocks, which provide rare insights into the ritual and architectural knowledge of the 18th Dynasty-surely one of the greatest eras of Ancient Egypt, when great pharaohs like Hatshepsut and Tutankhamun reigned.“This is the first time we’ve discovered such a comprehensive set of decorated blocks, showcasing some of the most beautiful scenes I’ve ever encountered,” Hawass said in a press conference.
These colorful reliefs depict Queen Hatshepsut and her successor, Thutmose III, performing sacred rituals. The valley temple of Queen Hatshepsut, one of the few female pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty who reigned until her death around 1458 BCE, was partially destroyed centuries later. Excavators also found ceremonial implements beneath the foundation of the temple bearing her name and a limestone tablet mentioning Senmut, the queen’s chief architect.
Not far from Hatshepsut’s temple, archaeologists also uncovered the tomb of Queen Tetisheri, the grandmother of Ahmose I, the king who expelled the Hyksos invaders and founded Egypt’s New Kingdom. Her rock-cut tomb consisted of a vaulted chapel made of mud bricks with red wall drawings on a white mortar background.“The excavation team discovered burial shafts containing wooden coffins from the 17th Dynasty, adorned with a feather emblem, and children’s tombs with toys inside.
The KV60A mummy, thought to be that of Hatshepsut
The findings, spanning from the 15th Dynasty (1650-1550 BCE) to the 18th Dynasty (1550-1292 BCE), underscore the historical richness of Luxor as a cradle of ancient Egyptian civilization. Archaeologists from Japan and Egypt collaborated to complete the dig at the ancient site of Saqqara, a strip of land running five miles along the Nile’s west bank. Once the burial ground for the Egyptian capital of Memphis, Saqqara is home to archaeological sites that span many centuries.
The burials included the remains of a small child and an adult, according to a statement from the ministry. Ancient Egyptians often buried their dead wearing decorative masks. The researchers also discovered newer burials, including remains from the Ptolemaic period (around 304 to 30 B.C.E.) and a coffin from the 18th Dynasty (roughy 1550 to 1295 B.C.E.). Additionally, researchers found two terracotta statues of Isis, the Egyptian goddess associated with magic and resurrection, and one of the child deity Harpocrates riding a goose.
The team also recovered amulets, pottery tools and ostraca-pieces of pottery-that feature hieratic inscriptions, or cursive hieroglyphics.
2024: Recent Archaeological Discoveries
An astronomical observatory, gold tongues found in mummies, a sword inscribed with the name of pharaoh Ramesses II and a 4,500 year-old attempt to treat cancer are just some of the interesting ancient Egyptian discoveries made in 2024.
Astronomical observatory
Archaeologists uncovered what they believe is the first astronomical observatory ever identified in ancient Egypt. Dating back to the sixth century B.C., the L-shaped structure spans 9,150 square feet (850 square meters) and has a gateway to the east from where an observer could track the sun and stars.
The tomb of Idi
The tomb of Idi, a governor's daughter who lived during the reign of Senwosret I (circa 1961 to 1917 B.C.), was found in Asyut. She was buried in two coffins - one within the other. The coffins are covered with intricate texts that were intended to help the deceased find their way in the underworld. It's very rare to find intact coffins that date to this time period, archaeologists noted.
Gold tongues
A number of gold tongues, dating back around 2,000 years, were found at the site of Oxyrhynchus. In January 2024 archaeologists announced the discovery of two gold tongues; then in December 2024 they noted that 13 more had been found at the site. Combine this with gold tongues found at the site in previous years and the total number found so far is at 29.
Bronze sword
A bronze sword inscribed with the name of pharaoh Ramesses II (ruled circa 1279 to 1213 B.C.) was discovered in the remains of a military barracks in the northwest Nile Delta. The sword was likely given to a high-ranking officer as a royal reward.
Tomb decorated with wall paintings
A 4,300-year-old tomb decorated with wall paintings that depict scenes of everyday life was found at Dahshur. These scenes show donkeys threshing grain by trampling over it, ships sailing the Nile river and goods being sold at a market.
Copper pollution
Scientists found traces of heavy copper pollution in the harbor near the Great Pyramid, which was used to bring in materials and laborers. The harbor is dried up now, but the team analyzed its sediments.
Tombs nestled in a hillside
Archaeologists discovered more than 30 tombs nestled in a hillside in Aswan. The tombs were in use between the sixth century B.C. and the second or third century A.D. Many of the burials consisted of families buried together. About 30% to 40% of the mummies in the tombs were children and newborns.
Blood-colored hallucinogenic concoction
Scientists found a blood-colored hallucinogenic concoction in a 2,200 year-old vase that depicts the dwarf god Bes. This is evidence that the Egyptians may have engaged in a hallucinogenic ritual that helped reenact a mythical story. In that story, the dwarf god Bes tricks the sky goddess Hathor.
Attempt to treat cancer
Scientists found evidence that the ancient Egyptians tried to remove a tumor from the skull of a man who lived around 4,500 years ago. The skull contained evidence of a large primary tumor as well as smaller tumors. Evidence suggests that someone tried to remove the cancer using metal surgical instruments. While the attempt was unsuccessful, it shows that the ancient Egyptians were trying to develop treatments for cancer at around the time the Giza pyramids were being built.
Temple hidden in a cliff face
A 2,100-year-old temple was found hidden in a cliff face at the site of Athribis. Archaeologists excavating the temple there found a relief showing King Ptolemy VIII (reign circa 170 to 116 B.C.) offering sacrifices to the lion-headed goddess Repit and her son Kolanthes. They also found astronomical symbols such as two decans, or stars that enable people to tell the time at night.
Khaemwise: The First Egyptologist
Dr Joann Fletcher wrote for the BBC: “Although the best known ancient Egyptians are usually pharaohs and queens, one of the most intriguing characters was a prince. The fourth son of King Ramses II by one of his chief wives Isetnofret, Khamwese (c.1285-c.1224 B.C.) was an influential figure in life. For a while he was heir apparent until he predeceased his long-lived father. He also gained a reputation for learning and magic which lasted for more than a thousand years, making him the ideal central character in the story of 'Death in Sakkara'.”
“His name-translated variously as Khamwese, Khaemwese, Khaemwise, Khaemwaset-is written with the three hieroglyph symbols featured at various points in the game: the sunrise symbol is pronounced 'kha', the owl 'em' and the sceptre-like sign was here pronounced 'waysi'. Although his name actually means 'Manifest in Thebes', the religious capital in the south of Egypt, Khamwese seems to have spent most of his life at the ancient capital Memphis in the north.
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