Africa, a continent rich in history and culture, is home to numerous ancient ruins that offer glimpses into the lives of past civilizations. These sites, ranging from the stone monuments of southern Africa to the Roman cities of the north, provide valuable insights into the rise and fall of empires, trade networks, and cultural practices.
This article explores some of the most significant ancient ruins in Africa, highlighting their history, architecture, and the stories they tell about the people who once inhabited them.
Stone Ruins of Southern Africa
The dzimbabwe ruins of south-eastern Africa are often described as the largest collection of stone monuments in Africa south of Nubia. While the vast majority of the stone ruins are concentrated in the modern countries of Zimbabwe and Botswana, a significant number of them are found in South Africa, especially in its northernmost province of Limpopo. Ruined towns such as Mapungubwe, Thulamela, and Dzata have attracted significant scholarly attention as the centers of complex societies that were engaged in long-distance trade in gold and ivory with the East African coast.
Recent research has shed more light on the history of these towns and their links to the better-known kingdoms of the region, enabling us to situate them in the broader history of South Africa. This article outlines the history of the stone ruins of South Africa and their relationship to similar monuments across the region.
During the late 1st millennium of the common era, the iron-age societies of southern Africa mostly consisted of dispersed settlements of agro-pastoralists that were minimally engaged in long-distance trade and were associated with a widely distributed type of pottery known as the Zhizho wares. The central sections of these Zhizo settlements, such as at the site of Shroda (dated 890-970 CE) encompassed cattle byres, grain storages, smithing areas, an assembly area, and a royal court/elite residence, in a unique spatial layout commonly referred to as the 'Central Cattle Pattern'.
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By 1000 CE, Shroda and similar sites were abandoned, and the Zhizo ceramic style largely disappeared from southwest Zimbabwe and northern South Africa. Around the same time, a new capital was established at the site known as ‘K2’, whose pottery tradition was known as the 'Leopard’s Kopje' style, and is attested at several contemporaneous sites. The size of the K2 settlement and changes in its spatial organization with an expanded court area indicate that it was the center of a rank-based society.
Map showing some of the earliest ‘Zimbabwe culture’ sites including Shroda, K2 and Mapungubwe in south Africa.
Around 1220CE, the settlement at K2 was abandoned and a new capital was established around and on top of the Mapungubwe hill, less than a kilometer away. The settlement at Mapungubwe contains several spatial components, the most prominent being the sandstone hill itself, with a flat summit 30m high and 300 m long, with vertical cliffs that can only be accessed through specific routes. The hill is surrounded by a flat valley that includes discrete spatial areas, a few of which are enclosed with low stone walling.
Mapungubwe's spatial organization continued to evolve into a new elite pattern that included a stonewalled enclosure which provided ritual seclusion for the king. Other stonewalling demarcated entrances to elite areas, noble housing, and boundaries of the town centre. The hilltop became a restricted elite area with lower-status followers occupying the surrounding valley and neighboring settlements, thus emphasizing the spatial and ritual seclusion of the leader and signifying their sacred leadership.
Mapungubwe Hill, the treeless area in front housed commoners. photo by Roger de la Harpe.
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Mapungubwe had grown to a large capital of about 10 ha, inhabited by a population of around 2-5000 people, sustained by floodplain agriculture of mixed cereals (millet and sorghum) and pastoralism. Comparing its settlement size and hierarchy to the capitals of historically known kingdoms, such as the Zulu, suggests that Mapungubwe probably controlled about 30,000 km2 of territory, about the same as the Zulu kingdom in the early 19th century.
There are a number of outlying settlements with Mapungubwe pottery in the Limpopo area which however lack prestige walling and instead occupy open situations. Those that have been investigated, such as Mutamba, Vhunyela, Skutwater and Princes Hill were organized according to the Central Cattle Pattern, indicating that they were mostly inhabited by commoners. However, the recovery of over 187 spindle whorls from Mutamba, about 80 km southeast of Mapungubwe, indicates that textile manufacture and trade weren’t restricted to elite settlements.
Wealth from local tributes and long-distance trade likely contributed to the increase in political power of the Mapungubwe rulers. The material culture recovered from the capital and other outlying settlements, which includes Chinese celadon shards, dozens of spindle-whorls for spinning cotton textiles, and thousands of glass beads, point to the integration of Mapungubwe into the wider trade network of the Indian Ocean world via East Africa's Swahili coast.
Prior to the rise of Mapungubwe, the 9th-10th century site of Schroda was the first settlement in the interior to yield a large number of ivory objects and exotic glass beads, indicating a marked increase in long-distance trade from the Swahili coast, whose traders had established a coastal entrepot at Sofala to export gold from the region. These patterns of external trade continued during the K2 period when local craftsmen produced their own glass beads by reworking imported ones and then selling their local beads to other regional capitals.
It is the surplus wealth from this trade, and its associated multicultural interaction, that presented new opportunities to people in the Mapungubwe landscape. A marked increase in international demand contributed to an upsurge in gold production that began in the 13th century and is paralleled by an economic boom at the Swahili city of Kilwa on the East African coast. The distribution of Mapungubwe pottery in ancient workings and mines such as at Aboyne (1170 CE ± 95) and Geelong (1230CE ± 80) in southern Zimbabwe, indicates that the Mapungubwe kingdom may have expanded north to control some of the gold fields.
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A large cache of gold artifacts was found in the royal cemetery of Mapungubwe, dated to the second half of the 13th century. The grave goods included a golden rhino, bowl, scepter, a gold headdress, gold anklets and bracelets, 100 gold anklets and 12,000 gold beads, and 26,000 glass beads. Radiocarbon dates indicate that the gold objects were all made in the early 13th century, at the height of the town’s occupation.
Analysis of the gold objects suggests that they were manufactured locally. Metal was beaten into sheets of the required thickness and then cut into narrow strips, or the strips were made from wire that was hammered and smoothed using an abrasive technique. The strips were then wound around plant fibers to form either beads or helical structures for anklets and bracelets, or around a wooden core for the rhino and bovine figurines.
Golden rhinoceros, bovine and feline figures, scepter, headdress, and gold jewelry from Mapungubwe, University of Pretoria Museums, Museum of Gems and Jewellery, Cape Town.
Its however important to emphasize that long-distance trade in gold from Mapungubwe and similar ‘Zimbabwe culture’ sites (the collective name for the stone ruins of southern Africa) was only the culmination of processes generated within traditional economies and internal political structures that were able to exploit external trade as one component of emergent hierarchical formations already supervising regional resources on a large scale.
The trade of gold in particular appears to have also been driven by internal demand for ornamentation by elites, alongside other valued items like cattle, copper and iron objects, glass beads, and the countless ostrich eggshell beads found at Mapungubwe and similar sites that appear to have been exclusively acquired through trade with neighboring settlements. Gold has been recovered from numerous 'Zimbabwe culture' sites, but few of these have been excavated professionally by archaeologists and subjected to scientific analysis, with the exception of Mapungubwe and the site of Thulamela (explored below). Incidentally, Gold fingerprinting analysis shows that the Thulamela gold and part of the Mapungubwe collection came from the same source, indicating that miners from Mapungubwe exploited it before miners from Thulamela took it over.
Around 1300 CE, the valley and hilltop of Mapungubwe were abandoned, and the kingdom vanished after a relatively brief period of 80 years. The reasons for its decline remain unclear but are likely an interplay of socio-political and environmental factors.
In most of the ‘Zimbabwe culture’ societies, sacred leadership was linked to agricultural productivity, rainmaking, ancestral belief systems, and a ‘high God’, all of which served to confirm the legitimacy of a King/royal lineage. Climatic changes and the resulting agricultural failure would have undermined the legitimacy of the rulers and their diviners while emboldening rival claimants to accumulate more followers and shift the capital of the kingdom.
It’s likely that the sections of Mapungubwe’s population shifted to other settlements that dotted the region, since Mapungubwe-derived ceramics have been found in association with a stonewalled palace in the saddle of Lose Hill of Botswana. Others may have moved east towards the town of Thulamela whose earliest occupation dates to the period of Mapungubwe’s ascendancy, and whose elites derived their gold from the same mines as the rulers of Mapungubwe.
The Ruined Town of Thulamela
Thulamela is a 9-hectare site about 200km east of Mapungubwe. It consists of several stone-walled complexes and enclosures on the hilltop overlooking the Luvuvhu River which forms a branch of the Limpopo River. The stone-walled enclosures cluster according to rank in size and position, with the majority being grouped around a central court area situated at the highest and most isolated part of the site. The status of the inhabitants is reflected in the volume of stone used, all of which are inturn surrounded by non-walled areas of habitation in the adjacent valley.
Archeological evidence from the site indicates that a stratified community lived at Thulamela, with elites likely residing on the top of the hill while the rest of the populace occupied the adjacent areas below. A main access route intersects the central area of the hill complex leading to an assembly area, which in turn leads to a private access staircase to the court area. construction features including stone monoliths, small platforms, and intricate wall designs are similar to those found in other ‘Zimbabwe culture’ sites likely denoting specific spaces for titled figures or activities.
Thulamela ruins, aerial view.
The site has seen three distinct periods of occupation, with phase I beginning in the 13th century, Phase II lasting from the 14th to mid-15th century, and Phase III lasting upto the 17th century. The earliest settlements had no stone walling but there were finds of ostrich eggshell beads similar to those from Mapungubwe. Stone-walled construction appeared in the second phase, as well as long-distance trade goods such as glass beads, ivory, and gold.
Occupation of the site peaked in the last phase, with extensive evidence of metal smithing of iron, copper, and gold, Khami-type pottery (from the Torwa kingdom capital in Zimbabwe), and a double-gong associated with royal lineages. Other finds included Chinese porcelain from the late 17th/early 18th century associated with the Rozvi kingdom capital of DhloDhlo in Zimbabwe, spindle-whorls for spinning cotton, ivory bangles, and iron slag from metal production. Two graves were discovered at the site, with one dated to 1497, containing a woman buried with a gold bracelet and 290 gold beads, while the other was a male with gold bracelets, gold beads, and iron bracelets with gold staple, dated to 1434. The location of the graves and the grave goods they contained indicate that the individuals buried were elites of high rank at Thulamela, and further emphasize the site's similarity with other ‘Zimbabwe culture’ sites like Mapungubwe.
The recovery of other gold beads, nodules, wire, and fragments of helically wound wire bangles, along with several fragments of local pottery with adhering lumps of glassy slag with entrapped droplets of gold, provided direct evidence of gold working in the hilltop settlement. The fabrication technology employed in Thulamela's metalworking was similar to that found at Mapungubwe.
The presence of gold and iron grave goods, along with Chinese porcelain and glass from the Indian Ocean world indicates that trade and metallurgy were salient factors in urbanization, social structuring, and state formation across the region.
The site of Thulamela was the largest in a cluster of three settlements near the Luvuvhu River, the other two being Makahane and Matjigwili. The three sites exhibit similar features including extensive stone walling and stone-built enclosures, and the division of the settlement into residential areas. Archeological surveys identified the central court area of Makahane on the hilltop, enclosed in a U-shaped wall, with the slopes being occupied by commoners. A gold globule found at Makahane indicates that it was also a gold smelting site. The site is traditionally thought to have been occupied in the 17th-18th centuries according to accounts by the adjacent communities of the Lembethu, a Venda-speaking group who still visited the site in the mid-20th century to offer sacrifices and pray at the graves of the kings buried there.
The sites of Thulamela and Makahane occupy an important historical period in south-eastern Africa marked by the expansion of the kingdoms of Torwa at Khami and the Rozvi state at DhloDhlo in Zimbabwe, whose material culture and historical traditions intersect with those of the sites. It’s likely that the two sites represent the southernmost extension of the Torwa and Rozvi traditions (similar to the ruined stone-towns of eastern Botswana), without necessarily implying direct political control.
Other Notable Ancient Ruins in Africa
Beyond southern Africa, the continent boasts a wealth of other ancient ruins, each with its own unique story to tell.
- Great Zimbabwe: During the late Iron Age of Zimbabwe, Great Zimbabwe was the bustling capital of the kingdom. This ancient site once housed as many as 18,000 people and spanned over 1,700 acres, now the largest ruins in sub-Saharan Africa.
- Khami Ruins: Arising from the collapse of Great Zimbabwe came the construction of the new capital of the kingdom, known as Khami. Created between 1450 and 1650, Khami was built in a fashion that was similar to the unique stone fabrication of Great Zimbabwe, yet it has its own style, with chevron and checkered patterns incorporated into the construction of walls and passageways.
- Kilwa Kisiwani: Kilwa Kisiwani (Isle of Fish) is an island off the coast of Tanzania in the Indian Ocean, and it was once the center of one of the greatest empires in East Africa. Reaching its pinnacle between the 13th and 15th centuries, the empire ruled by the Kilwa Sultanate stretched all the way from Kenya to Mozambique, covering the entire Swahili coast. Among the ancient structures on the island are the impressive ruins of The Great Mosque, the oldest standing mosque on the East African coast, as well as the Palace of Husuni Kubwa.
- Leptis Magna: Leptis Magna is considered one of the most well-preserved sites of Roman ruins in the Mediterranean. The site was originally founded in the second half of the 7th century BC and was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 46 BC. It flourished under the emperor Septimius Severus (193-211 CE) before later seeing some decline owing to regional conflict. It fell into ruin after it was conquered by Arabs in 642 CE and eventually became buried in sand, only to be uncovered in the early 20th century.
- Thebes: Thebes is one of the famed cities of antiquity. Its remains, some of which date back to the 11th dynasty (2081-1939 BCE) of ancient Egypt, lie on both sides of the Nile River in what is now the modern-day country of Egypt. The Thebes area also includes the archaeologically rich sites of Luxor, the Valley of the Kings, the Valley of the Queens, and Karnak.
- Rock-hewn churches of Lalībela: Lalībela, located in north-central Ethiopia, is famous for its rock-hewn churches, which date back to the late 12th and early 13th centuries. The 11 churches, important in Ethiopian Christian tradition, were built during the reign of the Emperor Lalībela.
- Timbuktu: Located on the southern edge of the Sahara in what is now Mali, the city of Timbuktu has historical significance for being a trading post on the trans-Saharan caravan route and as a center of Islamic culture in the 15th through the 17th century.
- Volubilis: Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1997, Volubilis is an exceptionally well-preserved example of a town with many different cultural influences - spanning from High Antiquity to Islamic times.
- Aksum: The ruins of the age-old city of Aksum are located near Ethiopia’s northern border and include monolithic obelisks, giant stelae, royal tombs, and the remains of ancient castles dating from between the 1st and 13th centuries AD.
Roman Ruins in North Africa
When it comes to finding Roman ruins in North Africa, Algeria and Tunisia are excellent options. Algeria, for example, is home to close to a dozen visitable sites. Timgad is a well-known and well-preserved former colony. The small outpost retains its grid-like shape. Even the library is partly visible, while the Trojan Arch remains almost fully intact millennia after its construction.
Djemila is another Roman ruin worth visiting-one that recently became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Here, you can still wander through a large forum, Trojan arch, and dozens of cobbled streets. Calama, hidden within the modern city of Guelma, is home to a 4,500-person amphitheater that’s in remarkable shape. A few other notable spots dot the theatre, including baths.
Carthage is the most well-known of North Africa’s ancient ruins. Like Djemila, it’s a protected UNESCO World Heritage site. Prior to the Roman takeover of Carthage, the city served as an important trading center for the Mediterranean for centuries. Dougga (Thugga) is described by UNESCO as a ‘small Roman town on the fringes of an empire’. Like Carthage, visitors might notice a few callbacks to its Carthaginian era. Bulla Regia is by far the coolest Roman ruin I’ve ever encountered. What sets it apart is its underground villas, many of which retain original mosaicwork. Like many other ruins, this city was influenced by the Romans, Carthaginians, Berbers, and Numidians.
Other Roman ruins in Algeria include:
- Khemissa
- Tipaza
- Lambaesis
- Tiddis
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa
Many of the ancient ruins in Africa are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, highlighting their cultural and historical significance. As of September 2017, South Africa and Ethiopia lead with both twelve sites; followed by Morocco and Tunisia being home to nine sites; then Algeria, Egypt, Senegal, and Tanzania at seven.
The World Heritage Committee may also specify that a site is endangered, citing "conditions which threaten the very characteristics for which a property was inscribed on the World Heritage List." Along with other World Heritage Sites, sites in danger are subject to re-evaluation by the committee every year at their "ordinary sessions".
Africa has 21 sites on the danger list, accounting for 14% of all African sites and 40% of the 52 endangered sites worldwide.
The untold history of the Great Zimbabwe Ruins
| Country | Number of World Heritage Sites |
|---|---|
| South Africa | 12 |
| Ethiopia | 12 |
| Morocco | 9 |
| Tunisia | 9 |
| Algeria | 7 |
| Egypt | 7 |
| Senegal | 7 |
| Tanzania | 7 |
Number of World Heritage Properties by region.
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