Ancient Egypt lasted a long time and encompassed a great many cooking traditions and recipes. Egyptian cuisine has evolved over thousands of years, influenced by various civilizations including the Pharaohs, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Ottomans. Ancient Egyptian food was shaped by the fertile lands of the Nile, offering a diverse diet influenced by geography, social status, and religious practices.
Looking at our own food over the past hundred years, we would barely recognize things our great grandparents ate on a daily basis. Egypt is much the same, except we're talking over thousands of years. However, they were a key people in how food evolved among the ancient world. International trade also brought a great many novel processes and ingredients over time.
Ancient Egyptian food included lots of different dishes, as the Egyptians had a great taste when it came to their cuisine. The ancient Egyptian society main food was bread and beer, often accompanied by fruits, vegetables, and fish, eaten by the poor, while meat and poultry were eaten by the rich. The Ancient Egyptian cuisine was largely shaped by the geography, the environment, and the Nile’s cycles, and the Egyptians used every resource available to ensure food security.
The main source of food for the Ancient Egyptians came from the fertile lands of the Nile River Valley, which provided ample crops for consumption.
Ancient Egyptians harvesting crops along the Nile River.
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Staple Foods: Bread and Beer
Bread and beer were staples for all classes, while meat, poultry, and luxurious spices were enjoyed by the wealthy. The staples bread and beer were usually prepared in the same locations, as the yeast used for bread was also used for brewing. In Egypt beer was a primary source of nutrition, and consumed daily. Bread was an important part of the Egyptian diet and was even used as a currency.
Ancient Egyptian bread was often made from barley, millet, and once it became available, wheat. Egyptian bread was made almost exclusively from emmer wheat, which was more difficult to turn into flour than most other varieties of wheat. Other than emmer, barley was grown to make bread and also used for making beer, and so were lily seeds and roots, and tiger nut.
Bread was a very simplistic form. Yeast did not exist in Egypt until well into the Middle Kingdom, so most loaves were takes on what we would consider today "flat" breads. And though it existed, yeast was not particularly popular until the New Kingdom era.
Egyptian bread was made almost exclusively from emmer wheat, which was more difficult to turn into flour than most other varieties of wheat. The chaff does not come off through threshing, but comes in spikelets that needed to be removed by moistening and pounding with a pestle to avoid crushing the grains inside.
The baking techniques varied over time. In the Old Kingdom, heavy pottery molds were filled with dough and then set in the embers to bake. During the Middle Kingdom tall cones were used on square hearths. Dough was then slapped on the heated inner wall and peeled off when done, similar to how a tandoor oven is used for flatbreads. Tombs from the New Kingdom show images of bread in many different shapes and sizes. Loaves shaped like human figures, fish, various animals and fans, all of varying dough texture.
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The grit from the quern stones used to grind the flour mixed in with bread was a major source of tooth decay due to the wear it produced on the enamel.
Beer, made from fermented barley, was a staple drink in Egypt and consumed by all classes. It was thick, more like a porridge than modern beer, and flavored with herbs or fruits. Wines were also made from fruits like dates, figs, and pomegranates. The Ancient Egyptians made beer by half-cooking barley, then soaking it in water and leaving it to set.
It was an important source of protein, minerals and vitamins and was so valuable that beer jars were often used as a measurement of value and were used in medicine.
Microscopy of beer residue points to a different method of brewing where bread was not used as an ingredient. One batch of grain was sprouted, which produced enzymes. The next batch was cooked in water, dispersing the starch and then the two batches were mixed. The enzymes began to consume the starch to produce sugar. The resulting mixture was then sieved to remove chaff, and yeast (and probably lactic acid) was then added to begin a fermentation process that produced alcohol. This method of brewing is still used in parts of non-industrialized Africa.
Detail of painted limestone stela, 18th dynasty, reign of Akhenaten (Amenophis IV), circa 1300 B.C.E. depicting use of an early form of drinking straw in beer-drinking.
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Ancient Egyptians drinking beer using straws.
Meat and Poultry
Though meat was regularly consumed by those with money, those who were not wealthy often survived on meals of beans and bread instead. Most towns and villages had hunters and fishermen, though the latter could be looked down upon by some of the more heavily religious communities. Meat consumption was often same-day as the animal was killed.
Beef, lamb, and goat were consumed by wealthier Egyptians, often during religious festivals or feasts. Wild game like gazelles and birds were hunted for food.
The most common meats in ancient Egypt were poultry. Water fowl, and a few somewhat domesticated fowl that were running around at the time were the most popular. Eggs were not incredibly common, because birds laid so few at the time every year that it was better a hen hatch them than to waste them on a meal.
Poultry, both wild and domestic, and fish were available to all but the most destitute. The alternative protein sources would rather have been legumes, eggs, cheese and the amino acids available in the tandem staples of bread and beer. Mice and hedgehogs were also eaten; a common way to cook hedgehog was to encase it in clay and bake it.
Foie gras, a delicacy which is still consumed, was invented by the ancient Egyptians.
Vegetables and Fruits
Vegetables were eaten as a complement to the ubiquitous beer and bread; the most common were long-shooted green scallions and garlic but both also had medical uses. There was also lettuce, celery (eaten raw or used to flavor stews), certain types of cucumber and, perhaps, some types of Old World gourds and even melons. By Greco-Roman times there were turnips, but it is not certain if they were available before that period.
A number of pulses and legumes such as peas, beans, lentils and chickpeas were vital sources of protein.
The most common fruit were dates and there were also figs, grapes (and raisins), dom palm nuts (eaten raw or steeped to make juice), certain species of Mimusops, and nabk berries (jujube or other members of the genus Ziziphus).
Figs were so common because they were high in sugar and protein. The dates would either be dried/dehydrated or eaten fresh. Dates were sometimes even used to ferment wine and the poor would use them as sweeteners. Unlike vegetables, which were grown year-round, fruit was more seasonal.
Cooking Methods
Food could be prepared by stewing, baking, boiling, grilling, frying, or roasting. Spices and herbs were added for flavor, though the former were expensive imports and therefore confined to the tables of the wealthy. Foods such as meats were mostly preserved by salting, and dates and raisins could be dried for long-term storage.
Ancient Egyptian food was shaped by the fertile lands of the Nile, offering a diverse diet influenced by geography, social status, and religious practices. Bread and beer were staples for all classes, while meat, poultry, and luxurious spices were enjoyed by the wealthy. Vegetables like onions, garlic, and lentils, along with fruits like dates and figs, were commonly consumed. Preservation techniques such as drying, salting, and fermenting allowed for food storage, while honey was the primary sweetener.
Honey was the primary sweetener, but was rather expensive. There was honey collected from the wild, and honey from domesticated bees kept in pottery hives. A cheaper alternative would have been dates or carob.
Banquet Depictions
Depictions of banquets can be found in paintings from both the Old Kingdom and New Kingdom. They usually started sometime in the afternoon. Men and women were separated unless they were married. Seating varied according to social status, with those of the highest status sitting on chairs, those slightly lower sat on stools and those lowest in rank sat on the floor or made-do for the time of the banquet.
Lily flowers and flower collars were handed out and professional dancers (primarily women) entertained, accompanied by musicians playing harps, lutes, drums, tambourines, and clappers.
There were usually considerable amounts of alcohol and abundant quantities of foods; there were whole roast oxen, ducks, geese, pigeons, and at times fish. The dishes frequently consisted of stews served with great amounts of bread, fresh vegetables and fruit. For sweets there were cakes baked with dates and sweetened with honey.
The ancient Egyptian diet was rich in grains and vegetables, which was nutritionally adequate and sustained a large population.
The food that Ancient Egyptians ate often depended on their social status. Food played a significant role in religious offerings and rituals.
Due to the hot climate, Ancient Egyptians relied on drying, salting, and fermenting food to preserve it.
Food was served on trays or baskets, without plates, and people ate with their fingers.
Food preparation in Ancient Egypt was mainly a household activity that was performed by wives and female family members, who were primarily responsible for cooking and preparing food. In wealthier households, servants often handled this work. For religious ceremonies or offerings to gods, priests or temple staff prepared the sacred meals.
Ancient Egyptians stored food in clay jars, baskets, and granaries. These storage vessels were often sealed with clay or mud to keep food fresh and protect it from pests like insects and rodents.
Grain was the staple of the Egyptian diet which was stored in large silos or granaries, typically near temples, homes, or farms.
Farmers in Ancient Egypt typically kept a portion of their harvest for personal consumption and used the rest to pay taxes or trade. The central administration, including temples and the Pharaoh’s granaries, collected much of the surplus food.
Examples of Recipes
Here's a simple recipe for ancient Egyptian bread:
- Mix three parts flour to one part water.
- Mix with the hands until it forms a sticky dough lump. If needed, add more water. You may use yeast if you desire, but it is best to use a sourdough starter or ground brewery grain if available.
- Allow to rise for thirty minutes, separate into rounds, place on a baking sheet and insert into a 300 degree oven.
- Cook for about 45 minutes. Check halfway through with a knife.
- Slice like a pizza.
You can make a simple chicken jerky in your oven. Simply Google until you find your favorite recipe.
Here are some of the essential recipes that the ancient Egyptians created:
- Bread: Bread was made by mixing flour from emmer wheat or barley with water. The dough was sometimes enriched with dates, honey, or herbs. It was baked in clay ovens or on hot stones.
- Beer: To make beer, barley was first sprouted, dried, and ground into a mash. This mash was mixed with water, fermented, and strained, resulting in a thick, nutritious beverage.
- Lentil Stew: Lentils were boiled with onions, garlic, and leeks, seasoned with salt and herbs. Sometimes, oil or fat from animals was added to give the stew richness.
- Fish Preparation: Fish was cleaned, salted, and either dried or smoked for preservation.
- Duck or Goose Roasted with Figs: Wealthier Egyptians enjoyed roasted meats, especially ducks or geese.
Table: Common Foods in Ancient Egypt
| Food Group | Examples | Availability |
|---|---|---|
| Grains | Emmer wheat, barley, millet | Staple food for all classes |
| Vegetables | Onions, garlic, lettuce, celery, cucumbers, lentils, chickpeas | Commonly consumed |
| Fruits | Dates, figs, grapes, dom palm nuts, nabk berries | Seasonal availability |
| Meat & Poultry | Beef, lamb, goat, ducks, geese, pigeons | Consumed by wealthier Egyptians |
| Fish | Catfish, mullet, tilapia | Available to most, but some religious restrictions |
| Drinks | Beer (barley), wine (grapes, dates, figs) | Beer was a daily staple; wine was less common |
| Sweeteners | Honey, dates, carob | Honey was primary but expensive |
Sweets were heavily eaten when they could be afforded. Among the most popular foods were honey, dates and stuffed shortbreads. These little stuffed shortbreads are still intensely popular today. Add 1/4 cup of walnuts to this, as well as another splash of orange juice. Cool before serving.
Egyptian cuisine is a tapestry of rich flavors, vibrant colors, and centuries-old culinary traditions. As a crossroads of cultures and a land of abundant resources, Egypt has developed a unique and diverse culinary identity.
Cuisine of Ancient Egypt | History of Egyptian Food, Dining Customs, and Diet
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