African masks have a long history in African art and can serve many purposes, including religious and cultural ceremonies, celebrations, and entertainment. Traditional African masks are like portals into another world. They reveal stories, beliefs, and rituals that have shaped communities for millennia. These aren’t just beautiful objects to admire from a distance.
Masks are a prominent feature of African cultural heritage. The history, use, and symbolism of masks vary across national, ethnic, and cultural identities. Masks are a prominent feature of African cultural heritage.
Traditional African masks are worn in ceremonies and rituals across West, Central, and Southern Africa. They are used in events such as harvest celebrations, funerals, rites of passage, weddings and coronations.
Some historians trace masks back to before the Paleolithic period. That’s over 2.5 million years ago.
An important fact to remember about African masks is that the masks were only one part of the regalia worn by masqueraders, who usually appeared in full body costume.
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This exhibit includes a variety of 20th century masks from cultures in Western Coastal and Central Africa, including masks of the Ijo, Igbo, Ibibio, and Yoruba cultures from Nigeria, along with masks of the Kuba culture from Democratic Republic of Congo. In these five African cultures, masks are the most common form of art.
Masqueraders serve a variety of purposes within these societies, such as representing historic cultural figures who are identifiable by their symbols; representing deities; standing as reminders of societal rules; and serving in roles in ceremonies.
While some African masks are meant to be humorous, others are designed to inspire fear or respect. Students can create their own African-inspired art masks by reflecting on the significance of the materials they choose to incorporate. They can draw inspiration from traditional masks or create something entirely new.
Let's explore some of the masks and their meaning.
Water Spirit Plank Headdress
The Water Spirit Plank Headdress was created by an artist of the Ijo culture in Nigeria, near the Niger River Delta. The headdress would be worn on top of the head, facing upward, because it is meant to imitate the way the Ijo saw these spirits, as floating supine in the water.
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The top of this mask has two cone-shaped horns, one on each side, that point upward, and in the middle, there is an additional protuberance. When masks have this middle projection, it is for attaching additional adornments for the masquerader’s regalia.
While nature spirits are often frightening, for the Ijo people the water spirit likes to cause trouble in a non-threatening way, and it is viewed as more playful than scary.
Janus Helmet Mask Topped with Modern Male and Female Figures
While this Janus Helmet Mask Topped with Modern Male and Female Figures was made by an artist of the Igbo culture, the motif of the Janus is common in Nigeria and the surrounding area. The white pigment on one face of the mask is a symbol of ancestors, as the Igbo associate the color white with death.
The Igbo culture is decentralized, and there is great diversity among their art forms. While a Janus mask will always have two faces, there is an endless variety of figures and themes that may form the top of the mask.
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This Janus mask is topped with two full-body figures, one male and one female, each wearing modern clothing and standing in between two spoked wheels with mirrored decorations. The male figure holds a book, and the female figure stands with its hand in the position of grasping a now-missing object.
Simplified Bwoom Helmet Mask with Flared Base
This Bwoom helmet mask was created by an artist of the Kuba culture from Central Africa. Bwoom masks represent multiple characters in Kuba theatrical performances.
Originally these masks were used along with masks known as Mashamboy and Ngaady a Mwaash, and they were danced in plays about early Kuba royalty; today, however, this mask may be used to represent an average Kuba person, or it may be used to represent a member of the Twa culture, who historically lived among the kings.
Traditionally, the Bwoom and other royal masks are danced during initiations and funerals.
Low-Profile Wandering Ghost Mask
The Low-Profile Wandering Ghost Mask was created by an artist of the Ibibio culture from Nigeria. This mask is the representation of a person who lived an immoral life, as indicated by the dark pigment of the mask.
The Ibibio believe that immoral people who have died will go on to wander the earth as evil ghosts, while the good souls travel to the spirit world for the afterlife.
Gelede Mask Topped with Six Female Figures
The Gelede Mask Topped with Six Female Figures was created by an artist of the Yoruba culture of Nigeria. The Gelede are a secret society within the Yoruba culture, which is made up of older men and postmenopausal women.
All Gelede masks consist of the combination of a human-faced helmet mask on the bottom with an elaborate superstructure on the top. While part of the superstructure of this mask is missing, the remaining portion retains six female figures arranged on a round platform.
The purpose of the Gelede masquerade is to honor women, past and present, who are referred to collectively as “The Mothers.” When men wear the Gelede mask in masquerade, the masquerade is believed to celebrate and to invoke protection from these ancestral spirits.
Symbolism and Meaning
African masks usually emulate a human or animal face in an abstract way. The inherent lack of realism in African masks (and African art in general) is justified by the fact that most African cultures clearly distinguish the essence of a subject from its looks, the former, rather than the latter, being the actual subject of artistic representation.
Stylish elements in a mask's looks are codified by the tradition and may either identify a specific community or convey specific meanings. Traits representing moral values are found in many cultures. Masks from the Senufo people of Ivory Coast, for example, have their eyes half closed, symbolizing a peaceful attitude, self-control, and patience. In Sierra Leone and elsewhere, small eyes and mouth represent humility, and a wide, protruding forehead represents wisdom.
Animals are common subjects in African masks. Animal masks typically embody the spirit of animals, so that the mask-wearer becomes a medium to speak to animals themselves (e.g. to ask wild beasts to stay away from the village); in many cases, nevertheless, an animal is also (sometimes mainly) a symbol of specific virtues.
Common animal subjects include the buffalo (usually representing strength, as in the Baoulé culture), crocodile, hawk, hyena, warthog and antelope. Antelopes have a fundamental role in many cultures of the Mali area (for example in Dogon and Bambara culture) as representatives of agriculture. Dogon antelope masks are highly abstract, with a general rectangular shape and many horns (a representation of abundant harvest.
A common variation on the animal-mask theme is the composition of several distinct animal traits in a single mask, sometimes along with human traits. Merging distinct animal traits together is sometimes a means to represent unusual, exceptional virtue or high status.
Another common subject of African masks is a woman's face, usually based on a specific culture's ideal of feminine beauty. Female masks of the Punu people of Gabon, for example, have long curved eyelashes, almond-shaped eyes, thin chin, and traditional ornaments on their cheeks, as all these are considered good-looking traits. Feminine masks of the Baga people have ornamental scars and breasts. One of the well-known representations of female beauty is the Idia mask of Benin. It is believed to have been commissioned by King Esigie of Benin in memory of his mother.
As the veneration of defunct ancestors is a fundamental element of most African traditional cultures, it is not surprising that the dead is also a common subject for masks. Masks referring to dead ancestors are most often shaped after a human skull. A special class of ancestor masks are those related to notable, historical or legendary people.
The most commonly used material for masks is wood, although a wide variety of other elements can be used, including light stone such as steatite, metals such as copper or bronze, different types of fabric, pottery, and more. Some masks are painted (for example using ochre or other natural colorants). A wide array of ornamental items can be applied to the mask surface; examples include animal hair, horns, or teeth, sea shells, seeds, straw, egg shell, and feathers.
The general structure of a mask varies depending on the way it is intended to be worn. The most common type applies to the wearer's face, like most Western (e.g., carnival) masks. Others are worn like hats on the top of the wearer's head; examples include those of the Ekhoi people of Nigeria and Bwa people of Burkina Faso, as well as the famous chiwara masks of the Bambara people. Some masks (for example those of the Sande society of Liberia and the Mende people of Sierra Leone, that are made from hollow tree stumps) are worn like helmets covering both the head and face.
The Role of Horns
The use of horns as decorative elements is common in many African masks. African mask makers often incorporate a mix of decorative elements, such as feathers, shells, and intricate designs.
The mask in the PLU collection is made from wood and crowned with three animal horns. The horns are long and swoop back from the front of the mask. The face of the mask is oval shaped with a long nose. The nose, forehead, and temples of the mask’s face are decorated with cowrie shells and red and orange abrus seeds. Four small circular mirrors are positioned above the eyes on the left and right side of the mask, and two small rectangle mirrors appear on either side of the mask. Small circle shaped ears are carved above the rectangle mirror on the cheek area of the mask. The other rectangle mirrors are placed on either side of the nose.
The members of the ntomo society make their own masks, which allows for many variations in design, but they all have the same purpose of being beautiful. Often cowrie shells and small red or orange airbus seeds, are used to enhance the design of a mask. Other societies’ masks can represent animals, but ntomo masks are anthropomorphic, which means they have human aspects to their form.
The annual ntomo initiation ceremony, when these masks are used, takes place during harvest time. The ntomo masks can also be seen in dances during other times of the year, such as during the dry season. The masks are worn while dancing, and are meant to look beautiful on a talented dancer. Dancers are dressed either in white or ochre, an earthy pigment of reddish coloring.
After circumcision and graduation from the ntomo society, the male’s next step in life depends on his own personal background and family history.
Since the ntomo mask in the PLU collection was most likely used, there is some damage on it. One of the top forehead circle mirrors has been cracked, and one of the lower circle mirrors has major wear causing it not to reflect completely. The tip of the long nose is chipped, and the there are some broken cowrie shells near the bridge of the nose. There are many missing abrus seeds in the design over the face. The wood which makes up the face of the mask has scratches and marks.
Commercialization and Modern Uses
As African masks are largely appropriated by Europeans, they are widely commercialized and sold in most tourist-oriented markets and shops in Africa (as well as "ethnic" shops in the Western world). As a consequence, the traditional art of mask-making has gradually ceased to be a privileged, status-related practice, and mass production of masks has become widespread.
While, in most cases, commercial masks are (more or less faithful) reproductions of traditional masks, this connection is weakening over time, as the logics of mass-production make it harder to identify the actual geographical and cultural origins of the masks found in such venues as curio shops and tourist markets.
Traditional African masks don’t belong locked away in museums. They belong in homes that appreciate history, meaning, and beauty.
- Hallways, foyers, entryways-these are spaces that carry movement and energy. Hanging a traditional African mask here, or placing it on a stand, creates a moment of stillness. These masks are guardians, after all.
- Traditional African masks bring powerful presence to the spaces where life unfolds. These masks anchor a room.
- There’s nothing quite like a traditional African mask when it comes to adding soul to a curated collection. These are objects that carry stories, values, and ancestral weight. When placed thoughtfully, traditional African masks bring a powerful, grounding energy to your space.
