As a Black first-year genetic counseling student, I am constantly delving into articles and papers for my coursework. Repeatedly encountering demographic information that categorizes participants as "Black/African American" in the "Race/Ethnicity" sections has become a source of frustration for me. I am Black AND African American. It’s crucial to recognize that this specific label and cultural pride does NOT extend to every Black person in this country. No one should be forced to categorize themselves in a way that is inauthentic to their cultural, personal, and societal experiences. Every Black person should have the autonomy to accurately label themselves, representing their unique cultural pride and ancestral history.
Black Lives Matter protests have opened up conversations about the history of privilege, racism, and the lived experiences and identities of black people in America. The two terms are often used interchangeably, but that isn't always accurate, and it's important to understand the nuance when discussing race both in America and on a global scale. "There are black people in every continent who are all over the world," explained Professor Celeste Watkins-Hayes, an African American studies professor at Northwestern University. "African American is nation-specific.
Let's delve into the complexities of these terms, exploring their historical roots, cultural significance, and the individual experiences that shape identity. It should be noted that the relationship between these two races can never be erased or forgotten even though there seems to be a discouraging high-level of historical ignorance or lack of in-depth understanding, especially amongst the newer generations of both races.
Why Caribbeans, Africans, and Black Brits Can't Stand Black Americans?! @MrTariqNasheed
Race vs. Ethnicity: Why Does It Matter?
Race is based on common physical traits among people of shared ancestry (Flanagin et al., 2021). Ethnicity is a state of belonging to a group of people who share culture, including but not limited to “language, ancestry, practices, and beliefs” (Flanagin et al., 2021). In this context, “Black” refers to a race while “African American” refers to an ethnicity. Race and ethnicity, while lacking precise biological foundations, are social constructs with significant relevance in studying systemic racism and healthcare disparities (Flanagin et al., 2021). Individuals often embody multiple racial and ethnic identities, highlighting the interconnected nature of these categories, making it essential not to discuss them in isolation (Flanagin et al., 2021).
- Race: Common physical traits among people of shared ancestry.
- Ethnicity: Belonging to a group sharing culture, language, ancestry, practices, and beliefs.
The Evolution of Terminology
From “Colored” to “Negro” to “Black” to “African American,” Black people in the United States have been called an array of terms throughout history. In 1988, Rev. Jesse L. Jackson, Sr. suggested Black Americans should be called “African-Americans” to create and promote ethnic identity and cultural integrity (Martin, 1991). had an identity label with “some historical cultural base,” such as “Italian-Americans” and “Armenian-Americans” (Martin, 1991). Jackson supported his notion by saying that “African-American” would emphasize pride and a heritage connection to the country of origin and the current location (Martin, 1991).
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Watkins-Hayes described the adoption of the term African American as a "very deliberate move on the part of black communities to signify our American-ness, but also signify this African heritage."
Currently, the first known appearance of the term “African American” is in a 1782 sermon written by a self-named “African American.” The identifier was not a popular one, however, and did not gain prominence until civil rights activist and minister Jesse Jackson pushed for its adoption and usage in the 1980s (as alternative to “black”) (2). Isabel Wilkerson writes that embrace of the term represented to some African Americans “that they are accepting their difficult past and resolving a long ambivalence toward Africa.” This shift hoped to change association from a racial identifier to a “cultural and ethnic identity.” In other words, Wilkerson wrote, “there is a feeling that ‘African-American’ can sometimes convey a significance that ‘black’ cannot.” There was not universal acceptance, however. “Some say they do not identify with African and resent prominent blacks telling them what to be called” (3).
Percentage of African American Population in the American South, 1790-2010
Note the major declines between 1910 and 1940 and 1940-1970, and the reverse trend post-1970.
The African American Experience
African-American history began in the 16th century, with Africans being sold to European slave traders and transported across the Atlantic to the Western Hemisphere. They were sold as slaves to European colonists and put to work on plantations, particularly in the southern colonies. A few were able to achieve freedom through manumission or escape, and founded independent communities before and during the American Revolution. After the United States was founded in 1783, most Black people continued to be enslaved, primarily concentrated in the American South, with four million enslaved people only liberated with the Civil War in 1865.
Key Historical Events:
- 16th Century: Start of African slave trade to the Western Hemisphere.
- 1865: Emancipation Proclamation and the end of the Civil War.
- Reconstruction Era: Citizenship and voting rights gained, followed by disenfranchisement.
- 20th Century: Great Migration, Civil Rights Movement, and increasing political representation.
During Reconstruction, they gained citizenship and adult-males the right to vote; however, due to widespread White supremacy, they were treated as second-class citizens and soon disenfranchised in the South. These circumstances changed due to participation in the military conflicts of the United States, substantial migration out of the South, the elimination of legal racial segregation, and the civil rights movement which sought political and social freedom. In the 20th and 21st centuries, immigration has played an increasingly significant role in the African-American community. African-American culture has had a significant influence on worldwide culture, making numerous contributions to visual arts, literature, the English language, philosophy, politics, cuisine, sports, and music.
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accept African American because of its cultural and historical roots in the black experience that is specific to this country. "African American technically isn't even what I am," he said. "I'm a Jamaican-born black person but I have taken on this label of African American because of where I live."
The Global Context of Blackness
The vast majority of those who were enslaved and transported in the transatlantic slave trade were people from several Central and West African ethnic groups. The first African slaves in what is now the United States arrived in the early 16th century. Africans also came via Santo Domingo in the Caribbean to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony (most likely located in the Winyah Bay area of present-day South Carolina), founded by Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón in 1526. The ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterward, due to an epidemic and the colony was abandoned.
"The move that you see now towards black is really to recognize the global nature of blackness," Watkins-Hayes said. "So, I think that that is the more universal term." The recognition of a larger community of black people is also part of the rationale given for capitalizing the word. "It's recognizing the cultural and historical and social significance of black as a category, such that is deserves capitalization," Watkins-Hayes explained.
"We are all connected," LaBeach said of what the term black means for him. "Our experiences are different, but we are still linked."
Challenges and Misconceptions
Perceiving and categorizing every Black student, patient, or research participant as African American is the erasure of Black histories and cultures. Conflating these two interconnected but distinct labels compels every Black person to “self-identify” with an identity that does not align with their experience. Consequently, in research, the nuances of ethnic differences within the Black experience are often overlooked, undermining the accurate representation of this historically disadvantaged population.
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In genetic counseling programs, discussions around diversity, equity, inclusion, and justice (DEIJ) disproportionately focus on the African American experience. In genetic counseling appointments, Black patients are often seen through a singular cultural lens, overlooking the fact that not all identify with the African American experience within the US. Am I capitalizing the “B” in Black when writing? Black and African American are distinct labels. Recognizing and respecting this differentiation is essential in the genetic counseling profession to cultivate a more inclusive and culturally sensitive approach to student supervision, patient care, and research.
Although whenever issues relating to racial differences arise, most people would most likely always refer to the forever existing tensed-filled relationship between African-Americans and the White race, but not so many would consider the possibility of any discord between other races, most especially Africans and African-Americans. The first reason to consider is the comparison debate between Africans and African-Americans, about who have suffered or continuously suffers the most. We begin by considering the latter’s historical slavery struggles which has obviously spilled over and transformed into the present-day inequality and inequity they are continuously forced to endure.
On the other hand, Africans continuously grieve their pathetic level of underdevelopment which evidence suggest came as a result of the European invasion. As earlier stated, the entire African continent was developing at a steady pace but lost the plot when valuable human and material resources were taken by the colonialists. According to Nathan Nunn, slavery is the major factor for Africa’s underdevelopment till date; a phenomenon which has created ethnic fractionalization and undermined the effectiveness of several African nations. Recent studies suggest Africa’s 72% average income gap with the rest of the world would not have existed if not for slave trade.
The Importance of Self-Identification
These layers of racial identity can be extremely personal and nuanced. "Part of what was stolen, when we think about slavery, when we think about colonization, was that lineage," said Watkins-Hayes. "Black" is often a better default that recognizes and celebrates the race, culture, and lived experiences of people all over the world.
But Watkins-Hayes adds that if someone wants to know for sure how a black person identifies, it's best to simply ask what their preference is.
