Horses and humans have shared a long history in Africa since the emergence of equestrian societies across the continent during the bronze age. For over 3,000 years, Horses were central to the formation and expansion of states in West Africa, the Maghreb, and the Horn of Africa, leading to the creation of some of the world's largest land empires such as Kush, Songhai, and Bornu, whose formidable cavalries extended across multiple ecological zones. While the use of horses is often thought to have been confined to the northern half of the continent, Horses were present in parts of the southern half of the continent and equestrian traditions emerged among some of the kingdoms of southern Africa where the horse became central to the region’s political and cultural history.
This article explores the history of the Horse in the southern half of Africa, including its spread in warfare, its adoption by pre-colonial African societies, and the emergence of horse-breeds that are unique to the region.
Map showing the spread of horses in the southern half of Africa.
Early Presence of Horses in Southern Africa
One of the earliest mentions of Horses on the mainland of southern Africa comes from a Portuguese account in 1554, describing the journey of a group of shipwrecked sailors north of the Mthatha River (Eastern Cape province). The Portuguese mention that they saw “a large herd of buffaloes, zebras, and horses, which we only saw in this place during the whole of our journey”. This isolated reference to horses in southern Africa is rather exceptional since the rest of the earliest Portuguese accounts only mention horses in the Swahili cities of the East African coast.
Horses spread to the African continent during the second millennium BC, and were adopted by many societies across the Maghreb, West Africa, and the Horn of Africa by the early centuries of the common era.
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Al-Masudi’s 10th-century description of Sofala (on the southern coast of Mozambique) for example, mentions that the Zanj of that region “use the ox as a beast of burden, for they have no horses, mules or camels in their land” adding that “These oxen are harnessed like a horse and run as fast.” A 12th-century account by Al-Idrisi describing the island of Mombasa in modern Kenya mentions that the King's guards “go on foot because they have no mounts: horses cannot live there.”
While neither of these writers visited Sofala (al-Masudi may have reached Pemba), their descriptions were likely influenced by the extensive use of oxen as pack animals among many mainland societies in the southern half of the continent.
Oxen as Pack Animals
The Khoe-san speakers of south-western Africa for example are known to have used cattle in transport and in warfare. Accounts of their first encounter with the Portuguese in 1497, mention that the oxen of the Khoe-san were “very marvellously fat, and very tame” adding that “the blacks fit the fattest of them with pack-saddles made of reeds ...and on top of these some sticks to serve as litters, and on these they ride.” The Khoe-san famously deployed these oxen during the battle of Table Bay in 1510. The warriors skilfully used their herd of cattle as moving shields and successfully defeated the Portuguese forces of Dom Francisco d'Almeida. Other societies in south-west Africa, such as the Bantu-speaking Xhosa also rode on cattle as attested in the earliest documentary record about their communities in the 17th century.
Trained oxen of the Khoe-san, Xhosa, and the Sotho were ridden with saddles made of sheepskin fastened by a rope girth. They usually had a hole drilled through the cartilage of their noses and a wooden stick with a rope fastened to either end to enable the rider to direct the animal.
Further north in the regions between modern Angola and Zambia, riding oxen were utilized by various African societies, especially in the drier savannah regions where large herds of cattle could be kept. The 1798 account of the Portuguese governor of Mozambique-Island, Francisco José de Lacerda, mentions that riding oxen (bois cavallos) were the primary means of transport in the Lunda province of Kazembe, besides the more ubiquitous head porterage. While Lacerda recommended that the Portuguese should import camels or domesticate zebras, multiple attempts to introduce camels ended in failure, and the zebra remains undomesticated.
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Later accounts from the 19th century document the extensive use of riding oxen in Angola by both local and foreign traders traveling as far as Congo and parts of Zambia. A particular breed of cattle from Barosteland (the Lozi kingdom) called the ‘Yenges’ were used as riding oxen in Angola. According to an account from 1875, oxen were trained for riding at Moçâmedes in southwestern Angola; “the cartilage of the nose is perforated, and through the opening, a thin, short piece of round iron is passed, at the end of which are attached the reigns and the animal is guided by them in the same manner as a horse.”
A Sanza (thumb piano) with an equestrian figure riding a highly stylized bull, 19th century, Chokwe artist, Angola/D.R.Congo, Cleveland Museum
Horses on the East African Coast
Horses appear more frequently in the earliest accounts of Portuguese visitors to the East African coast. When Vasco Da Gama first arrived in the city of Malindi in 1498, he observed two horsemen engaged in a mock fight. The Portuguese thus sent gifts to the king of Malindi, which included a saddle, bridles, and stirrups, all of which the king utilized during a brief ceremony where he rode on horseback. In 1505, after the Portuguese invasion of Kilwa by Dom Francisco d’Almeida, the rival kings he installed also rode on horseback to proclaim their ascendancy, likely inspired by the ceremony witnessed at Malindi, or part of a pre-existing tradition.
An account from 1511 by Tom Pires indicates that the horses of the East African coast were imported from Yemen. He mentions that; “Goods are brought from Kilwa, Malindi Brava, Mogadishu, and Mombassa in exchange for the good horses in this Arabia.” However, later accounts of Swahili trade and military systems indicate that these horses were used sparingly, likely only serving a ceremonial function, while donkeys and camels remained the main pack animals, and can still be seen in the modern streets of Lamu and Mombasa.
Donkeys carrying building material, early 20th century, Mombasa, Kenya.
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Defeat of European Cavalries in Subequatorial Africa
The earliest encounter with European horses in the southern half of the continent began during the first wave of invasions of the mainland during the late 16th century. In 1570-71, the Portuguese conquistador Francisco Barreto traveled up the Zambezi River at Sena (in Mozambique) with about “twenty three horses and five hundred and sixty musqueteers” in his failed invasion of the kingdom of Mutapa (in Zimbabwe), where some of the horses were poisoned by rival Swahili merchants while others died due to disease.
Along the Atlantic coast in what is today modern Angola, a few horses were reportedly introduced in the kingdom of Kongo, along with Portuguese mercenaries to serve the Kongo king Afonso I as early as 1514, but both proved to be rather unsatisfactory, and the horses did not survive for long.
Significant numbers of war horses only arrived in west-central Africa during the Portuguese invasion of the kingdom of Ndongo in the late 16th century which led to the creation of the coastal colony of Angola with its capital at Luanda. In 1592, Francisco de Almeida arrived in Luanda with 400 soldiers and 50 horsemen who led a failed invasion into the Kisama province of Ndongo in order to reverse an earlier defeat inflicted on the Portuguese forces by Ndongo's army. The initial attack using the cavalry disorganized the armies of Kisama, although the latter countered the effect of cavalry by using the surrounding cover of the woods to draw and defeat the Portuguese force, forcing them to retreat.
A later invasion of the kingdom of Ndongo & Matamba in 1626 led by Bento Banha Cardoso against the famous queen Njinga was relatively successful. The Portuguese installed an allied king opposed to Njinga, whose retreating forces were unsuccessfully pursued by “eighty cavalry and foot soldiers.” Cavalry frequently appeared in Portuguese battles with Njinga's army, but their numbers remained modest, with only 16 cavalry among the 400 Portuguese officers and 30,000 auxiliaries at the battle of Kavanga in 1646.
The small cavalry force of the Portuguese was maintained by constantly importing remounts from Brazil and other places, but these troops were never a significant factor in warfare. They typically fought dismounted, as they did at Kavanga, and even in reconnaissance or pursuit never went faster than the quick-footed pedestrian scouts.
The Portuguese who had come to central Africa hoping to repeat the feats of the Spanish horsemen in Mexico were quickly disappointed. Their early claims that one horseman was equal to a thousand infantrymen were rendered obsolete by the realities of warfare in central Africa. The last of the largest Portuguese invasions which included a cavalry unit of 50 horsemen was soundly defeated by the armies of Matamba in 1681; more than 100 Portuguese men were killed along with many of their 40,000 African auxiliaries.
It should be noted that the ineffectiveness of cavalry warfare didn’t present a significant impediment to Portuguese colonization of the southern half of the continent, as they nevertheless managed to establish vast colonies in the interior of central Africa, south-east Africa, and the Swahili coast, which at their height in the early 17th century, occupied a much larger territory than the Dutch Cape colony of south-west Africa, where the environment was more conducive to horses and cavalry warfare.
Spread of Equestrian Tradition
Horses arrived in the Dutch Cape colony in 1653, about a century after they were first sighted in the eastern Cape region by the Portuguese. The importation of horses, which began with four Javanese horses brought by the colony’s founder Van Riebeeck in 1653, was a perilous process and their numbers remained low for most of the 17th century. African horse-sickness initially constrained horse breeding, forcing settlers to use idiosyncratic mixtures of local knowledge of disease management. They learned from the Khoe herders how to use smoky fires to discourage flies, grazing at higher elevations, and where to move horses between seasons inorder to keep the stock alive.
After gradually building up their stock of horses, settler authorities used them to display settler ascendancy to the subject population of the cape. By 1670, they established horse-based ‘commando’ units for policing the frontier; these traveled as cavalry but attacked as typical infantry units that dismounted to shoot. The number of Horses steadily rose from 197 in 1681 to 2,325 in 1715 to 5,749 by 1744. Horse riding and warfare became an important symbol of social identity and military power for the Boer population of the cape, which prompted neighbouring African societies to adopt this equestrian tradition.
Beginning in the 1780s, creolized groups of Khoe-san speakers such as the Griqua and Kora, mounted on horses, moved to the Orange River area and beyond as part of the eastward migration from the Cape colony. The small Griqua and Kora societies were primarily engaged in cattle raiding and horse trade with and against sedentary communities like the Xhosa and Sotho. Griqua and Kora warriors used horses to supply mobility but primarily fought on foot.
Other creolized groups such as the AmaTola, assimilated horses into the raiding economies, and their belief systems. They brought horses to the Drakensberg from the eastern Cape frontier and became acculturated into the neighboring sedentary societies, especially the Xhosa from whom their ethnonym is likely derived and whose equestrian tradition they initially influenced.
Spear-wielding men [San foragers], some probably dismounted from the nearby horses, ‘hunt’ a hippopotamus. Traced by Patricia Vinnicombe from a rock-painting in the East Griqualand area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
Korana horseman, ca. 1836, illustration by Thomas Arbousset and François Daumas.
In the modern eastern cape region, the Xhosa gradually adopted the use of horses and firearms during their century-long wars against the Boers, British and neighboring African groups. The armies Xhosa king Sarhili (r. 1835-1892) won several battles against the neighbouring Thembu and Mpondo due to their skillful use of horses and firearms. By 1846, Xhosa factions were able to mobilize as many as 7,000 armed mounted men, and they soon became excellent horsemen, although horses weren't commonly used in actual combat due to the terrain.
In contrast to the Sarhili’s Xhosa kingdom, the neighboring kingdom of Mpondo under King Faku (r. 1818 -1867) did not create cavalry units. King Faku often preferred to avoid hostilities with the Boers and the British, and instead played the two groups against each other. The Mpondo nevertheless acquired horses from the neighbouring Khoe-san groups through trade and raiding, and the horses were used in transport and minor conflicts in Mpondoland.
Procession of men on horse-back in Pondoland, ca. 1936, eastern cape region, South Africa. British Museum.
Two men riding on horse-back in Pondoland, ca. 1936, British Museum.
Raids by the Kora against the baSotho made a significant impression on the latter, whose king Moshoeshoe (r. 1822-1870) acquired his first horse in 1829 while he was consolidating his power to create the kingdom of Lesotho. Moshoeshoe's subjects quickly became more than a match for the Kora and other San groups as they acquired their own horses and guns. Some were captured from the Kora, while others were procured by individuals who had gone to work on farms in the Cape Colony, and many more were obtained through trade.
Moshoeshoe began to build up a small cavalry as he gained more followers. He attacked the predatory bands of the Kora and Griqua from the early 1830s, and traded with some who were allies. By 1839 the price of horses had increased to ten guineas (or six oxen for one horse) at Griqua Town because there was a ready buyer’s market in the neighbouring baSotho chiefs. Between 1833 and 1838 Moshoeshoe imported 200 horses and by 1842 he had 500 armed horsemen who were “constantly prepared for war.”
African Horse Breeds
Many of the world's most magnificent animals may be found in Africa. However, some people are unaware that Africa is also home to a variety of distinctive horse breeds. Some are used for racing, others for transportation, and sport and some are now extinct.
- Barb: A North African breed that is among the most popular in Africa. Barbs are closely related to Arabians, although their appearance is less polished. Barb horses stand 14.2 to 15.2 hands tall on average, with a muscular physique, elevated neck, and beautiful legs. Grey, black, brown, or chestnut are the most prevalent colours.
- Nooitgedachter: A South African breed. The Basuto Pony Project started the breed in 1951, and due to earlier inbreeding, meticulous breeding was necessary. The Nooitgedachter breed was created as a consequence of this effort. Nooitgedachter horses have a strong, compact physique and are extremely durable and rideable. They are often bay, chestnut, or blue roan in colour and stand 13.2 to 15 hands tall.
- Boerperd: Many people seem to think that the Boerperd is a descendent of the Cape or historic Boer horse. From 1652 until 1836, Barb-Arabian hybrids from Java with Andalusian and Persian Arabian were bred. Boerperd horses have an appealing, athletic physique, with powerful, well-arched necks and muscular legs. They stand between 14 and 16 hands tall and come in a range of colours.
- Vlaamperd: Is yet another South African breed. Its name translates to "Flemish horses" because of its significant Friesian heritage. In the nineteenth century, the breed emerged from the now-extinct Hantam horse. With a well-arched neck and delicate head, Vlaamperd horses have a strong yet graceful look. They are predominantly black and stand 14.2 to 15.2 hands tall because of their Friesian background.
- Fleuve: The Fleuve breed is a Senegalese horse whose name means "big river" in French. Fleuve horses are popular in Senegal for races, polo, dressage, and jumping and are an integral part of the culture. They are athletic horses with decent bodies and slim frames.
- Dongola: The Dongola, sometimes known as the Dongolawi, is a Sudanese, Cameroonian, and Eritrean horse breed. They were previously a widespread breed that was even introduced to Ireland and Germany, but they are no longer as prevalent. They feature a convex design, a light yet sturdy construction, and solid riding mounts.
- Poney du Logone: The Poney du Logone is found in Chad and Cameroon near the Logone River. They are very popular among the Moussey. Favoured among locals for transit and casual riding. Poney du Logones are approximately 12 hands tall and come in bay, roan, chestnut, or grey colours.
- Western Sudan Pony: The Western Sudan pony may be seen in southern Darfur and southwestern Kordofan. The origin of the Western Sudan pony is poorly documented.
- Abyssinian: The Abyssinian is a horse breed that originated in Ethiopia's northern region. Abyssinian horses were first imported to the United Kingdom in 1861, and thereafter to America. This resilient strain thrives in hot, arid environments.
- Namib Desert Horse: The Namib Desert Horse is a wild horse breed found in Namibia's the Namib Desert. Though the origins of the Namib Desert Horse are unknown, many believe they are derived from the German army and riding horses that survived throughout World War I. They are strong and have adapted to life in the desert. The Namib Desert Horses are a light, athletic breed, comparable to European sport horses. Some horses have dorsal stripes, which are often bay or chestnut in colour.
Whether for riding or agricultural purposes, these horses are well-suited to life in Africa. With their strong bodies and adaptable temperaments, they make important contributions to local communities throughout the continent.
Origins of the Barb Horse
If you have had the opportunity to travel around North Africa, it is very likely you have encountered the local Barb horse. Strong, steadfast, and with a big personality, this breed is at the very centre of our riding holidays in Morocco.
The origin of the North African Barb horse is still subject to some debate. Some experts believe that the breed is older than the famed Arabian horse, while others have suggested that they both have one common ancestor: the Akhal Teke. The breed history begins in Africa around the 8th century, when a fierce tribe of horsemen named Zanatah, located in what is today Algeria, used Barbs to travel across the arid plains and green mountains of the Barbary Coast.
With the Moorish invasion of Spain, the Barb horse was exported to Europe. There, it was often mistaken with the Arabian horse (mostly because their handlers were Berber Muslims), even though they have very little in common, apart from their height and endurance. In England, the breed showed great stamina and was crossbred with native mares to develop what would become the much-loved Thoroughbred.
It is believed that the Barb actually had a greater influence on racehorses than even the Oriental Arabian horses or the Turcoman stallions. Its influence can also be seen in many other breeds across the world, such as the Appaloosa, the Andalusian or the Mustang.
Nowadays, Barbs are primarily being bred in Spain, Algeria, Morocco and Southern France. Over the years, the breed has known different variations and gave way to other varieties such as the Moroccan Barb, Tunisian Barb, Algerian Barb, and many others. It typically has strong legs and small, round hooves. Expressive eyes, a luxuriant mane and tail, short ears, and a broad forehead are other common features. Gray, chestnut, black, and bay coats are most commonly found, and more rarely dun, grulla and roan coats.
With its muscular physique, the Barb is a very versatile equine companion that can turn its hoof to pretty much any discipline. This type of morphology is seen as an advantage for horses that have to support a heavy load on their backs as it puts less strain on the back muscles. This condition in the majority of these horses plays a big role in their endurance capabilities.
Due to their great stamina, Barb horses can maintain a steady pace when travelling over long distances and are well adapted to life in a hot, arid environment - which is why they are ideally suited to our trail rides in the Sahara. Personality-wise, they are great to work with, as they are quite intelligent and very fast learners.
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