The year 1880 marks a significant turning point in the history of Africa. It was the beginning of the "Scramble for Africa," a period of rapid invasion, conquest, and colonization by European powers. At this time, only about 10% of the continent was under formal European control. This era, driven by the Second Industrial Revolution and the rise of "New Imperialism," dramatically reshaped the political map of Africa.
Comparison of Africa in 1880 and 1913 showing the impact of the Scramble for Africa.
European Presence Before the Scramble
Before the intense colonization efforts of the late 19th century, European presence in Africa was limited. By 1841, European businessmen had established small trading posts along the coasts, primarily engaging in trade with local populations. As late as the 1870s, Europeans controlled approximately 10% of the African continent, with their territories mainly near the coasts. Key holdings included:
- Angola and Mozambique (Portugal)
- Cape Colony (United Kingdom)
- Algeria (France)
Factors Driving the Scramble for Africa
Technological and Medical Advances
Technological advancements played a crucial role in facilitating European expansion. Industrialization led to rapid improvements in transportation and communication, such as steamships, railways, and telegraphs. Medical advances, especially medicines for tropical diseases, helped mitigate the adverse health effects on Europeans in Africa.
Economic Motivations
Sub-Saharan Africa, largely untouched by "informal imperialism," attracted business entrepreneurs. Surplus capital found more profitable investment opportunities overseas due to cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials. The demand for raw materials, including ivory, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin, further fueled imperialistic ambitions.
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Political and Strategic Considerations
The vast interior between Egypt and the resource-rich Southern Africa held strategic value in securing overseas trade routes. Britain, keen on protecting its lucrative markets in India, Malaya, Australia, and New Zealand, sought to control the Suez Canal, completed in 1869. The scramble for African territory also reflected the need for military and naval bases for strategic purposes and to exert power. Colonies were seen as assets in balance-of-power negotiations and as potential sources of military manpower.
A Brief History of The Scramble For Africa
Key Players and Their Actions
France
In the early 1880s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza explored the Congo River region for France. France occupied Tunisia in May 1881 and Guinea in 1884. The French aimed to create an uninterrupted corridor from West Africa eastward through the Sahel, along the southern border of the Sahara.
Belgium
Leopold II of Belgium, through the Committee for Studies of the Upper Congo, aimed to establish the Congo Free State as his personal domain. He initially sought to recruit Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza but later turned to Henry Morton Stanley.
Germany
Initially disliking colonies, Otto von Bismarck succumbed to popular and elite pressure in the 1880s. Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons, and South West Africa as protectorates in 1884. The German Empire was formally proclaimed on 18 January 1871. Germany became the third-largest colonial power in Africa.
Italy
Following its unification, Italy sought to expand its territory, taking parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882. By 1889-90, Italy occupied territory on the Horn of Africa, forming Italian Somaliland. In 1911, Italy acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica from the Ottoman Empire, which became Italian Libya.
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United Kingdom
Britain occupied Egypt in 1882, gaining control over Sudan and parts of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. The administration of Egypt and the Cape Colony led to a focus on securing the source of the Nile River. Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 20th century.
The Berlin Conference
In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the Berlin Conference to address the "African problem." While discussions included ending the slave trade and missionary activities, the primary goal was to prevent war among European powers as they divided the continent. The conference established rules for claiming territories, requiring notification of intentions and effective occupation. The Berlin Conference transformed Africa's colonization from informal economic penetration to systematic political control through its 'effective occupation' principle.
The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 regulated European colonization and trade in Africa.
Conflict and Resistance
The Scramble for Katanga
The scramble for Katanga exemplified the period's ruthless competition. Leopold II sent multiple expeditions to secure the region, rich in copper, ivory, and rumored gold. The Stairs expedition, under Leopold's orders, resulted in the death of Msiri, the powerful ruler of the Yeke Kingdom, and the annexation of Katanga into Leopold's Congo Free State.
The Mahdist Revolt
During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in Northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. In 1881, the Mahdist revolt erupted in Sudan under Muhammad Ahmad, challenging Tewfik's authority.
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The Boer Wars
Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic in 1877 for the British Empire. The Boers protested and revolted in December 1880, leading to the First Boer War. The Jameson Raid of 1895 was a failed attempt to overthrow the Boer government in the Transvaal.
Impact and Brutality
Congo Free State
The brutality of King Leopold II in the Congo Free State was well-documented. Estimates suggest that up to 8 million of the 16 million native inhabitants died between 1885 and 1908 due to indiscriminate war, starvation, reduced births, and diseases like sleeping sickness and smallpox. A similar situation occurred in the neighboring French Congo, where brutal methods by concession companies and the introduction of disease resulted in significant population loss.
Suez Canal Construction
The construction of the Suez Canal involved significant human cost. While some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000, others suggest that 120,000 workers died over ten years from malnutrition, fatigue, and diseases, especially cholera.
The political map of Africa in 1880 was on the cusp of dramatic change. The subsequent decades would witness the continent's partition among European powers, driven by a complex interplay of economic, strategic, and political factors, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to shape Africa today.
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