The "Scramble for Africa" (1880-1914) vividly illustrates how imperialism shaped the relationship between Europe and the rest of the world. Driven by the Second Industrial Revolution, seven Western European powers engaged in the invasion, conquest, and colonization of most of Africa during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, marking an era of "New Imperialism".
Map of Africa in 1913 showing European colonies
Background and Motivations
As European nations industrialized, business and political leaders actively sought raw materials and new markets for their manufactured goods. Increased competition and the desire to control and profit from territorial acquisition spurred European powers to look towards Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa, largely untouched by "informal imperialism," attracted business entrepreneurs. Surplus capital was often invested more profitably overseas, where cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials promised greater returns. The demand for raw materials such as ivory, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin further fueled imperialism.
Pro-imperialist colonial lobbyists argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve the problems of low prices and overproduction caused by shrinking continental markets. Some historians argue that this shrinking of continental markets was a key factor of the global "New Imperialism" period. However, others disagree with the link made between capitalism and imperialism, arguing that colonialism is used mostly to promote state-led development rather than corporate development.
The vast interior between Egypt and the gold and diamond-rich Southern Africa had strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade. Britain, under political pressure to build up lucrative markets in India, Malaya, Australia, and New Zealand, wanted to secure the key waterway between East and West - the Suez Canal, completed in 1869.
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The scramble for African territory also reflected the need for military and naval bases for strategic purposes and the exercise of power. Growing navies and new steam-powered ships required coaling stations and ports for maintenance. Colonies were seen as assets in balance of power negotiations, useful as items of exchange in international bargaining. Colonies with large native populations were also a source of military power.
Колониальный раздел Африки: о чем молчат европейские цивилизаторы // DEEP SPACE
The Beginning of the Scramble
In 1870, only 10% of the continent was formally under European control. By 1841, European businessmen had established small trading posts along the coasts of Africa, but they seldom moved inland, preferring to stay near the sea and trade with locals. As late as the 1870s, Europeans controlled approximately 10% of the African continent, with their territories located near the coasts. The most important holdings were Angola and Mozambique, held by Portugal; the Cape Colony, held by the United Kingdom; and Algeria, held by France.
Technological advances facilitated European expansion overseas. Industrialization brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially steamships, railways, and telegraphs. Medical advances, especially medicines for tropical diseases, also played an important role in controlling their adverse effects.
Key Players and Events
- France: France occupied Tunisia in May 1881 and Guinea in 1884. Their thrust into the African interior was mainly from the coasts of West Africa (present-day Senegal) eastward, through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara.
- Germany: Initially disliking colonies, Otto von Bismarck gave in to popular and elite pressure in the 1880s. In 1884, Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons, and South West Africa to be under its protection. Weltpolitik (world policy) was adopted by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, transforming Germany into a global power through aggressive diplomacy and naval development.
- Italy: Following unification, Italy sought to expand its territory, taking possession of parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882. In 1889-90, it occupied territory on the south side of the Horn of Africa, forming Italian Somaliland. The Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1935-1936), ordered by Benito Mussolini, resulted in the occupation of Ethiopia.
- Belgium: Leopold II of Belgium organized the International African Association in 1876. By 1890, the Congo Free State consolidated control of its territory. The brutality of King Leopold II in the Congo Free State was well documented, with millions of native inhabitants dying between 1885 and 1908.
- Britain: Britain occupied Egypt in 1882, gaining control over Sudan and parts of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 20th century. The Cape Colony provided a base for the subjugation of neighboring African states and Dutch Afrikaner settlers.
The Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the Berlin Conference to discuss the African problem. While diplomatic discussions were held regarding ending the remaining slave trade and missionary activities, the primary concern was preventing war between European powers as they divided the continent among themselves. The diplomats laid down the rules of competition, guiding the great powers in seeking colonies. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Leopold II as a neutral area with free trade and navigation.
The Berlin Conference transformed Africa's colonization from informal economic penetration to systematic political control through its 'effective occupation' principle. No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions, and no territory could be formally claimed before being effectively occupied.
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The Berlin Conference
Resistance and Exceptions
Many African groups, such as the Ashanti, Fulani, Tuareg, Opobo, Nbele, and Shona, fought to control their land but were defeated by European forces. One exception was in northern Africa, where Italy tried to take control of Ethiopia. The Ethiopians defeated the Italians in 1896. The Italians later took over the land, but that lasted only a few years.
Consequences
The invading powers drew boundaries between their colonies with no regard for the ethnic groups and kingdoms that already existed. They also lacked knowledge of the people they conquered, leading to confusion and difficulty in ruling. The brutality of colonial rule, particularly in the Congo Free State, resulted in significant loss of life due to war, starvation, disease, and reduced birth rates.
The Suez Canal
To construct the Suez Canal, French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps obtained concessions from Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, in 1854-56. Some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000, while others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction from malnutrition, fatigue, and disease, especially cholera. By 1875, facing financial difficulties, Khedive Isma'il was forced to sell his block of shares in the Suez Canal, which were acquired by Britain.
Conflicts and Rebellions
During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in Northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. In 1881, the Mahdist revolt erupted in Sudan under Muhammad Ahmad, severing Tewfik's authority in Sudan. The same year, Tewfik suffered a rebellion by his Egyptian army in the form of the Urabi revolt. In 1882, Tewfik appealed for direct British military assistance, commencing Britain's administration of Egypt.
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In South Africa, Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic in 1877 for the British Empire. In 1879, after the Anglo-Zulu War, Britain consolidated its control of most of the territories of South Africa. The Boers protested, leading to the First Boer War in December 1880.
Territorial Control in Africa in 1914
Below is a table showing the territorial control in Africa in 1914:
| Colonial Power | Territories |
|---|---|
| United Kingdom | Egypt, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, South Africa |
| France | West Africa, Tunisia, French Congo |
| Germany | Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, Tanganyika |
| Italy | Eritrea, Italian Somaliland, Libya |
| Belgium | Congo Free State |
| Portugal | Angola, Mozambique |
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