The migration out of Egypt around 1250 BC is the single most important event in Hebrew history. More than anything else in history, this event gave the Hebrews an identity, a nation, a founder, and a name, used for the first time in the very first line of Exodus, the biblical account of the migration: "bene yisrael," "the children of Israel."
The story of the Exodus is very complex and may be taken two ways. On the one hand, it is the story of a group of miserable slaves coerced into forced building labor in Egypt. A charismatic leader called Moses emerges, and under his leadership the slaves manage to escape from Egypt: “And it was told to the king of Egypt that the people had fled” (Exod. 14:5). On the other hand, we are told that the Israelites are driven out of Egypt because of the Egyptians’ fear of them: “because they were driven out of Egypt” (Exod. 12:39).
How did this happen? How did this diverse set of tribal groups all worshipping a god they called "god," suddenly cohere into a more or less unified national group? What happened in Egypt that didn't happen with other foreigners living there?
Well, we really can't answer that question, for we have almost no account whatsoever of the Hebrews in Egypt, even in Hebrew history. The Hebrews themselves are only interested in the events directly leading up to the migration; all the events in the centuries preceding are passed over in silence.
For all the momentousness of the events of the migration for the Hebrews and the dramatic nature of the rescue, including plagues and catastrophes raining down on Egypt, the Egyptians do not seem to have noticed the Hebrews or to even know that they were living in their country. While we have several Egyptian records of foreign groups during the New Kingdom, they are records of actively expelling groups they feel are threatening or overly powerful. The Hebrews never appear in these records, nor do any of the events recounted in the Hebrew history of the event.
Read also: History of Israelites
The Exodus is one of the most dramatic events in the Hebrew Bible-the slavery of the Israelites in Egypt and their miraculous escape across the Red Sea. It is traditionally viewed as the single event that gave birth to the nation of Israel.
The Biblical narrative of the Exodus is a fascinating account that can be supplemented by additional historical sources.
Also, contrary to the notion that the Israelites were very downtrodden, other verses describe them as leaving Egypt with great wealth: God lends the people favor in Egyptian eyes, and the Egyptians give them gold and silver vessels (Exod. 11:2-3; 12:35-36). There is even a verse reading, “and the people of Israel went up armed out of the land of Egypt” (Exod. 13:18); literally, they were armed soldiers, the precise inversion of a downtrodden people. According to these verses, then, the exodus included a military element: armed Israelite soldiers and foreign mercenaries who came from abroad to help them.
Is there archaeological evidence for the Exodus, and for Israelites in Egypt?
The Hebrews in Egypt: Guesses and Possibilities
We can make some guesses about the Hebrews in Egypt, though. It isn't unreasonable to believe that a sizable Hebrew population lived in the north of Egypt from about 1500-1250 BC; enormous numbers of tribal groups, most of them Semitic, had been settling in northern Egypt from about 1800 BC. These foreigners had grown so powerful that for a short time they dominated Egypt, ruling the Egyptians themselves; this period is called the Third Intermediate Period in Egyptian history.
Read also: Biblical Account of Captivity
When the Egyptians reasserted dominance over Egypt at the start of the New Kingdom, they actively expelled as many foreigners as they could. Life got fairly harsh for these foreigners, who were called "habiru," which was applied to landless aliens (taken from the word, "apiru," or foreigner). Is this where the Hebrews got their name? It's a hotly contested issue.
Nevertheless, the New Kingdom kings also began to garrison their borders in the north and east in order to prevent foreigners from entering the country in the first place. In particular, the Egyptian king, Seti I (1305-1290), moved his capital to Avaris at the very north of the Nile delta. This move was a shrewd move, for it established a powerful military presence right at the entrance to Egypt.
Garrisoned cities, however, don't pop into existence at a whim; they are labor intensive affairs. Typically, building projects involved heavy taxation of local populations; these taxes took the form of labor taxes. It isn't unreasonable to guess that the heaviest burden of these taxes fell on the foreigners living in the area, which would include the Hebrews. As best as we can guess, we believe that these building projects form the substance of the oppression of the Hebrews described in Exodus.
Nothing, however, should have prevented these oppressed and miserable foreigners from spilling into the anonymity of history-as so many had done before and since.
Route of the Exodus
Read also: Explore the Exodus narrative
The Role of Moses
One figure, however, changed the course of this history and united some of these foreigners into a distinct people; he also gave them a religion and a theology that would forever unite them in a singular purpose in history. That person was Moses. In spite of the masterful portrayal of him in Exodus , he is a difficult figure to pin down.
Few people dispute that Moses was a reality in history, whether as an individual or a group of individuals, but there are several perplexing aspects of the man. First, he has an Egyptian name (as do many of his relatives). Second, he seems to spend a large amount of time among a non-Hebrew people, the Midianites, where he marries and seems to learn the Yahweh religion, and some of its cultic practices, from the Midianites. Are there two Moses, an Egyptian and a Hebrew? Or an Egyptian and a Midianite? And are the Midianites the first peoples to worship Yahweh and who then transmit this religion to the Hebrews?
The question is complicated by the presence of Miriam, Moses' sister, in the migration. For she is the first individual in the Hebrew bible to be called a "prophet," and seems to have been an important player in the migration, possibly even being the principle figure in the climactic battle between the Egyptians and the Hebrews at the Sea of Reeds. At some point, however, there was a falling out between Miriam and Moses, and Miriam gets lost to history.
It is equally difficult to pinpoint exactly who participated in the migration. Although the focus is on the Hebrews, Exodus claims that a "diverse group of peoples" left Egypt with Moses. Who were these? Did they include other Semites? Was the migration to Egypt a staggered affair, or was it a single, heroic migration as indicated in Exodus? What resistance did the Egyptians put up? What was the nature of their battle with the Egyptians at the Sea of Reeds?
The account of this battle is vitally important to Hebrew history, for the deliverance of the Hebrews at the Sea of Reeds stands as the single most powerful symbol of Yahweh's protection of the Hebrews. Exodus gives two accounts; in the first, Yahweh blows the water away to create a ford, and the Egyptians get stuck in the mud and go home. In the second, Yahweh separates the waters and drowns the Egyptians when they try to cross. Which is the correct account? It's difficult to answer any of these questions.
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The Hebrew Account and Its Significance
In the end, the only account we have of the migration from Egypt is the Hebrew account. Several salient aspects give this narrative its foundational role in the Hebrew view of history.
First, Moses is especially chosen by Yahweh to deliver Yahweh's people. In other words, Yahweh directly intervenes in history in order to bring about his purposes for his people. Second, the people of Yahweh become a national entity, identified by the name, "bene yisrael," rather than simply being a diverse group of tribes. They are united around a specific leader, Moses.
Third, the events in Egypt, including the plagues and the miraculous deliverance of the Israelites at the Sea of Reeds when pursued by the king's army, are meant to serve as the primary proof of God's election of the Hebrews. There's no question that these stories were told and retold among the Hebrews as the most important events of their history.
For in the events leading up to and involving the migration from Egypt, Yahweh proved once and for all that he would use and protect the Hebrews as the people, and the only people, selected by Yahweh.
Third, Hebrew religion became the Yahweh religion. The Hebrews did not worship "Yahweh" before the migration, but learned the cult, according to Exodus, from Moses during the migration. This introduction to Yahweh and the Yahweh cult occurred in the southernmost region of the Arabian peninsula, in an area around Mount Sinai.
This area had been occupied by a nomadic, tribal people called Midianites. They seem to have worshipped a kind of nature god which they believed lived on Mount Sinai. It is here, living with a priest of the Midianites, called Jethro, that Moses first encounters Yahweh (on Mount Sinai) and learns his name for the first time.
The name of god, which in Hebrew is spelled YHWH, is difficult to explain. Scholars generally believe that it derives from the Semitic word, "to be," and so means something like, "he causes to be." Nevertheless, when Moses returns to Sinai with the people of Israel and stays in the area (this period is called the Sinai pericope), Jethro declares that he has always known Yahweh to be the most powerful of all gods (was the Midianite religion, then, a religion of Yahweh?).
During the Sinai pericope, all the laws and cultic practices of the new Yahweh religion are set down. The laws themselves come directly from Yahweh in the Decalogue, or "ten commandments." The Decalogue is a unique part of the Hebrew Torah in that it is the only part of Hebrew scriptures which claims to be the words of god written down on the spot .
Whatever happened in the migration from Egypt to Canaan, it is clear that somewhere in this period the general laws and cultic practices of the Hebrews settled down into a definite form. These laws and this new cult of Yahweh would form the eternal character of the Hebrews down to the present day.
What began as a "diverse group of peoples" has become one people, who then systematically begin to settle the land of the Canaanites.
The Migration to Egypt: A Detailed Look
The migration of the Israelites to Egypt is a pivotal event in biblical history, marking the beginning of a significant period in the life of the Hebrew people. This migration is primarily documented in the Book of Genesis, chapters 37 through 50, and sets the stage for the subsequent Exodus narrative.
Background and Context
The account begins with Joseph, the eleventh son of Jacob (also known as Israel) and the firstborn of Rachel. Joseph's journey to Egypt was initiated by the jealousy and betrayal of his brothers, who sold him into slavery. Despite his hardships, Joseph rose to prominence in Egypt, becoming the second most powerful man after Pharaoh due to his God-given ability to interpret dreams. This ability allowed him to foresee and prepare for a severe famine that would affect the entire region.
The Famine and Joseph's Rise to Power
Genesis 41:39-40 records Pharaoh's acknowledgment of Joseph's wisdom: "Then Pharaoh said to Joseph, 'Since God has made all this known to you, there is no one as discerning and wise as you. You shall be in charge of my house, and all my people are to obey your commands. Only with regard to the throne will I be greater than you.'"
Joseph's strategic management during the seven years of plenty ensured that Egypt had ample reserves during the subsequent seven years of famine. This famine extended beyond Egypt, affecting Canaan, where Jacob and his family resided.
The Migration to Egypt
The famine forced Jacob to send his sons to Egypt to buy grain. Unbeknownst to them, they were dealing with their brother Joseph, whom they had not recognized. After a series of tests to ascertain their character and repentance, Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers. In Genesis 45:4-5 , Joseph reassures them: "Then Joseph said to his brothers, 'Please come near me.' And they did so. 'I am Joseph, your brother,' he said, 'the one you sold into Egypt! And now, do not be distressed or angry with yourselves that you sold me into this place, because it was to save lives that God sent me before you.'"
Joseph invited his father Jacob and the entire family to settle in Egypt to survive the remaining years of famine. Pharaoh himself extended an invitation, offering them the best of the land. Genesis 46:3-4 records God's reassurance to Jacob: "I am God, the God of your father,' He said. 'Do not be afraid to go down to Egypt, for I will make you into a great nation there. I will go down with you to Egypt, and I will surely bring you back again. And Joseph’s own hand will close your eyes.'"
Settlement in Goshen
Jacob and his family, numbering seventy persons, migrated to Egypt and settled in the region of Goshen, as described in Genesis 46:27 . This area was well-suited for their pastoral lifestyle and allowed them to thrive. The Israelites' presence in Egypt was initially marked by favor and prosperity under Joseph's administration.
Significance
The migration to Egypt was a fulfillment of God's promise to Abraham that his descendants would be strangers in a land not their own, where they would be enslaved and oppressed for four hundred years (Genesis 15:13).
The Exodus: A Journey to Freedom
The Exodus (Hebrew: יציאת מצרים, Yəṣīʾat Mīṣrayīm) is the founding myth of the Israelites whose narrative is spread over four of the five books of the Pentateuch (specifically, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy). The story of the Exodus is central in Judaism. It is recounted daily in Jewish prayers and celebrated in festivals such as Passover.
In the first book of the Pentateuch, the Book of Genesis, the Israelites had come to live in Egypt in the Land of Goshen during a famine, under the protection of an Israelite, Joseph, who had become a high official in the court of the Egyptian pharaoh. The pharaoh becomes concerned by the number and strength of the Israelites in Egypt and enslaves them, commanding them to build at two "supply" or "store cities" called Pithom and Rameses (Exodus 1:11).
Meanwhile, Moses goes to Mount Horeb, where Yahweh appears in a burning bush and commands him to go to Egypt to free the Hebrew slaves and bring them to the Promised Land in Canaan. Yahweh also speaks to Moses's brother Aaron, and the two assemble the Israelites and perform miraculous signs to rouse their belief in Yahweh's promise.
After this, Yahweh inflicts a series of Plagues on the Egyptians each time Moses repeats his demand and Pharaoh refuses to release the Israelites. Moses is commanded to fix the first month of Aviv at the head of the Hebrew calendar. He instructs the Israelites to take a lamb on the 10th day, and on the 14th day to slaughter it and daub its blood on their doorposts and lintels, and to observe the Passover meal that night, the night of the full moon.
In the final plague, Yahweh sends an angel to each house to kill the firstborn son and firstborn cattle, but the houses of the Israelites are spared by the blood on their doorposts. Pharaoh finally casts the Israelites out of Egypt after his firstborn son is killed.
However, once the Israelites have left, Yahweh "hardens" Pharaoh's heart to change his mind and pursue the Israelites to the shore of the Red Sea.
| Event | Biblical Reference | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Succoth | Ex. 12; Num. | After the Hebrews left this first campsite, the Lord attended them in a cloud by day and in a pillar of fire by night. |
| Pi-hahiroth | Ex. 14; Num. | Israel passed through the Red Sea. |
| Marah | Ex. 15 | The Lord healed the waters of Marah. |
| Elim | Ex. 15 | Israel camped by 12 springs. |
| Wilderness of Sin | Ex. 16 | The Lord sent manna and quail to feed Israel. |
| Rephidim | Ex. 17 | Israel fought with Amalek. |
| Mount Sinai | Ex. 19-20 | The Lord revealed the Ten Commandments. |
| Sinai Wilderness | Ex. 25-31 | Israel constructed the tabernacle. |
Historical and Archaeological Perspectives
Most mainstream scholars do not accept the biblical Exodus account as history for a number of reasons. Most agree that the Exodus stories were written centuries after the apparent setting of the stories. Despite the absence of any archaeological evidence, according to Avraham Faust, "most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core" made up of a probable reconstruction of an Exodus based on similar collective memories.
Most scholars posit that a small group of Egyptian origin may have joined the early Israelites, and contributed their own Egyptian Exodus story to all of Israel. Many other scholars reject this view, and instead see the biblical exodus traditions as the invention of the exilic and post-exilic Jewish community, with little to no historical basis.
Evidence from the Bible suggests that the Exodus from Egypt formed a "foundational mythology" or "state ideology" for the Northern Kingdom of Israel.
Commemoration and Cultural Impact
Commemoration of the Exodus is central to Judaism, and Jewish culture. For Jews, the Passover celebrates the freedom of the Israelites from captivity in Egypt, the settling of Canaan by the Israelites, and the "passing over" of the angel of death during the death of the first-born. Passover involves a ritual meal called a Seder during which parts of the exodus narrative are retold. In the Hagaddah of the Seder it is written that every generation is obliged to remind and identify itself in terms of the Exodus.
The Christian ritual of the eucharist and the holiday of Easter draw directly on the imagery of the Passover and the Exodus. In the New Testament, Jesus is frequently associated with motifs of the Exodus.
The story of the Exodus is also recounted in the Quran, in which Moses is one of the most prominent prophets and messengers.
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