Slavery in ancient Egypt existed at least since the Old Kingdom period. Discussions of slavery in Pharaonic Egypt are complicated by terminology used by the Egyptians to refer to different classes of servitude over the course of dynastic history. Interpretation of the textual evidence of classes of slaves in ancient Egypt has been difficult to differentiate by word usage alone.
Kushite prisoners of war watched over by Egyptians, waiting to be deported into Egypt.
Types of Enslavement in Ancient Egypt
There were three types of enslavement in Ancient Egypt: chattel slavery, bonded labor, and forced labor. Even these seemingly well-differentiated types of slavery are susceptible to individual interpretation. The word translated as "slave" from the Egyptian language does not neatly align with modern terms or traditional labor roles. Egyptian texts refer to words 'bꜣk' and 'ḥm' that mean laborer or servant. Some Egyptian language refers to slave-like people as 'sqr-ꜥnḫ', meaning "living prisoner; prisoner of war".
Forms of Forced Labor and Servitude
Forms of forced labor and servitude are seen throughout all of ancient Egypt. Egyptians wanted dominion over their kingdoms and would alter political and social ideas to benefit their economic state.
Old Kingdom Period
During the Old Kingdom Period, prisoners of war captured by the Egyptian army were called sqr.w-ꜥnḫ ("living prisoners"; the root meaning of sqr is "strike; hit," thus nominalized as "(one who has been) struck down"). This was not a distinct term for "slave" but for prisoners of war, as already stated. Reliefs from this period depict captured prisoners of war with their hands tied behind their backs. The term, 'ḥm', emerged with at least two distinct usages: 1) "Laborer" and 2) "Servant".
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Middle Kingdom Period
During the Middle Kingdom, records show that coerced laborers included conscripts (hsbw), fugitives (tsjw), and royal laborers (hmw-nsw). The Reisner Papyrus and El Lahun papyri depict prisoners being employed in state enterprises. Slaves, especially of Levantine origin were grouped in ghetto camps to perform labor for the state where they lived in harsh conditions, often including beating by their masters. If an individual coerced into labor attempted to escape or was absent from their work, they might be condemned to coerced labor for life.
New Kingdom Period
During the New Kingdom period, the military and its expenses grew and so additional coerced labor was needed to sustain it. As such, the "New Kingdom, with its relentless military operations, is the epoch of large-scale foreign slavery". Many more slaves were also acquired via the Mediterranean slave market, where Egypt was the main purchaser of international slaves. The foreigners captured during military campaigns are, for example, referred to in the Annals of Thutmose III as "men in captivity" and individuals were referred to as "dependents" (mrj).
A statue of a kneeling captive in Ancient Egypt, Old Kingdom ca. 2246-2152 a.
Chattel Slaves
The Chattel slaves were mostly captives of war and were brought to different cities and countries to be sold as slaves. All captives, including civilians not a part of the military forces, were seen as a royal resource. The pharaoh could resettle captives by moving them into colonies for labor, giving them to temples, giving them as rewards to deserving individuals, or giving them to his soldiers as loot.
Bonded Labor
Ancient Egyptians were able to sell themselves and children into slavery in a form of bonded labor. Self-sale into servitude was not always a choice made by the individuals' free will, but rather a result of individuals who were unable to pay off their debts. The creditor would wipe the debt by acquiring the individual who was in debt as a slave, along with his children and wife. The debtor would also have to give up all that was owned.
Read also: Biblical Account of Captivity
The Allegation of Israelite Enslavement
The allegation that Israelite slaves built the pyramids was first made by Jewish historian Josephus in Antiquities of the Jews during the first century CE, an account that was subsequently popularized during the Renaissance period. Whilst the idea that the Israelites served as slaves in Egypt features in the Bible, scholars generally agree that the story constitutes an origin myth rather than a historical reality.
But the fact that the Bible's depiction of Israelite servitude accords with what it is known about slavery in ancient Egypt has convinced some scholars that the story probably has some historical basis. On the other hand, scholars have noticed that several biblical traditions recall Israel's time in Egypt without reference to slavery and oppression: Ezekiel 20, for example, presents Egypt as the place where God revealed himself to Israel without mentioning slavery, Deuteronomy 23:8 recalls the Egyptians as hosts rather than oppressors, and laws such as Deuteronomy 10:19 and Leviticus 19:34 speak to Israel as sojourners in Egypt, using this memory as the basis for the commandment to love the foreigners residing among them. Other texts even depict Egypt nostalgically, with the people recalling its abundant food (Exod. 16:3; Num. 11:4-5) or describing it as "a land flowing with milk and honey" (Num. 16:13).
Some skeptics insist that Egyptian records don’t mention Hebrews in Egypt. But in light of the fact that ancient Egyptians didn’t usually refer to foreigners with specific ethnic designations, it isn’t surprising that we don’t find explicit mention of the Hebrews in Egyptian texts. It’s also unlikely that Egyptian scribes would want to preserve embarrassing memories like the Exodus event.
However, some Egyptian texts have been found that actually do mention slaves in Egypt who seem to have Hebrew-sounding names. Could these people be Israelites living in Egypt? One papyrus from the northeast delta region of Egypt, dating to 1700 BC, contains a list of 95 names of runaway household slaves. Of those 95 names, 45 are Semitic names, and 10 of these names are Hebrew names or Hebrew-like names. Examples include the feminine form of Jacob, ’Aqoba, the feminine form of Asher, ’Ashera, and the feminine form of Job, ’Ayuvung.
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A mummy's soles depicting two Asian prisoners. Between 722 and 332 BC, Late Period of ancient Egypt.
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Conditions of Slavery
Masters of Ancient Egypt were under obligations when owning slaves. Masters were allowed to utilize the abilities of their slaves by employing them in different manners including domestic services (cooks, maids, brewers, nannies, etc.) and labor services (gardeners, stable hands, field hands, etc.). Masters also had the right to force the slave to learn a trade or craft to make the slave more valuable.
Many slaves who worked for temple estates lived under punitive conditions, but on average the Ancient Egyptian slave led a life similar to a serf. They were capable of negotiating transactions and owning personal property.
Conclusion
While definitive proof of widespread Israelite enslavement in Egypt remains elusive, various forms of servitude and forced labor were common in ancient Egypt. Biblical accounts and emerging historical evidence offer intriguing perspectives on the possible presence and treatment of Israelites during this period.
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