African art encompasses the vast and diverse artistic expressions of the African continent, stretching from ancient rock paintings in the Sahara to contemporary installations in major cities. While the various artistic traditions of such a large and diverse continent display considerable regional and cultural variety, there are consistent artistic themes, recurring motifs, and unifying elements across the broad spectrum of the African visual expression.
A map of Africa highlighting its diverse regions and cultures.
As is the case for every artistic tradition in human history, African art was created within specific social, political, and religious contexts. Likewise, African art was often created not purely for art's sake, but rather with some practical, spiritual, and/or didactic purpose in mind.
Historical and Cultural Context
The origins of African art lie long before the recorded history. In Africa, evidence for the making of paints by a complex process exists from about 100,000 years ago and of the use of pigments from around 320,000 years ago. The region's oldest known beads were made from Nassarius shells and worn as personal ornaments 72,000 years ago. African rock art in the Sahara in Niger preserves 6000-year-old carvings.
Along with sub-Saharan Africa, the Western cultural arts, ancient Egyptian paintings and artifacts, and indigenous southern crafts also contributed greatly to African art. The abundance of surrounding nature was often depicted through abstract interpretations of animals, plant life, or natural designs and shapes.
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The Nubian Kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan was in close and often hostile contact with Egypt and produced monumental sculptures mostly derivative of styles that did not lead to the north. In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures are from the Nok culture, which thrived between 1,500 BC and 500 AD in modern Nigeria.
Traditional African religions have been extremely influential on African art forms across the continent. African art often stems from the themes of religious symbolism, functionalism and utilitarianism. With many pieces of art that are created for spiritual rather than purely creative purposes. The majority of popular African artworks can be understood as the tools, such as the representative figurines used in religious rituals and ceremonies.
Many African cultures emphasize the importance of ancestors as intermediaries between the living, the Gods, and the supreme creator. Art is seen as a way to contact these spirits of ancestors. Art may also be used to depict Gods and is valued for its functional purposes. For example, African God Ogun who is the God of iron, war, and craftsmanship.
Key Characteristics
Several characteristics define African art, differentiating it from other artistic traditions:
- Visual Abstraction: African artworks often prioritize visual abstraction over naturalistic representation.
- Human Figure: The human figure has long been the central subject of most African art, and this emphasis has influenced certain European artistic traditions. In African art, the human figure can symbolize the living or the dead, represent chiefs, dancers, or various trades, serve as an anthropomorphic image of a deity, or fulfill other votive and spiritual functions.
- Expressiveness and Individuality: In Western African art there is a particular focus on expressiveness and individuality.
- Materials: African art is produced using a wide range of materials and takes many distinct shapes. Because wood is a prevalent material, wood sculptures make up the majority of African art. Other materials used in creating African art include clay soil. Jewelry is a popular art form used to indicate rank, affiliation with a group, or purely aesthetics. African jewelry is made from such diverse materials as Tiger's eye stone, Hematite, Sisal, coconut shell, beads and Ebony wood. Sculptures can be wooden, ceramic or carved out of stone like the famous Shona sculptures, and decorated or sculpted pottery comes from many regions. Various forms of textiles are made including Kitenge, mud cloth and Kente cloth. Mosaics made of butterfly wings or colored sand are popular in West Africa.
Forms of African Art
African art is not limited to one medium. The choice of material often has cultural and religious significance.
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Sculpture is most common among "groups of settled cultivators in the areas drained by the Niger and Congo rivers" in West Africa. Direct images of deities are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or were often made for ritual ceremonies.
Bobo Mask (Nyanga) from Burkina Faso, made in the early 19th century.
One of the most recognized forms of African art is the mask. Masks are important elements in the art of many people, along with human figures, and are often highly stylized. Used in religious and social ceremonies, masks are more than decorative objects; and in many African communities, it was believed that those masks were vehicles through which spirits can be contacted or through which stories and morals can be conveyed.
Sculptural art forms a significant part of African artistic tradition. West African cultures developed bronze casting for reliefs, like the famous Benin Bronzes, to decorate palaces and for highly naturalistic royal heads from around the Bini town of Benin City, Edo State, as well as in terracotta or metal, from the 12th-14th centuries.
African textile art is vast and varied. Akan gold weights are a form of small metal sculptures produced from 1400 to 1900; some represent proverbs, contributing a narrative element rare in African sculpture; and royal regalia included gold sculptured elements. The kente cloth of the Akan people of Ghana, the mudcloth (bògòlanfini) of the Bamana people in Mali, and the Akwete cloth of the Igbo are just a few examples.
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Beadwork is another significant aspect of African art, with beads used to create both functional and decorative items, including jewelry, crowns, and garments. A lot of African art is functional. Pottery, textiles, and tools are often adorned with patterns and designs, making them both utilitarian and artistic.
Regional Variations
There exist diverse styles, which can often be observed within a single context of origin and may be influenced by the intended use of the object. Nevertheless, broad regional trends are discernible.
- West Africa: Many West African figures are used in religious rituals and are often coated with materials placed on them for ceremonial offerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of the same region make pieces from wood with broad, flat surfaces and arms and legs shaped like cylinders.
- Ethiopia: Ethiopian art, heavily influenced by Ethiopia's long-standing Christian tradition, is also different from most African art, where Traditional African religion (with Islam prevalent in the north east and north west presently) was dominant until the 20th century.
The Impact of Colonialism
The colonial period had a profound impact on African art. European collectors and museums were interested in African art primarily as ethnographic objects rather than artistic creations. During and after the 19th and 20th-century colonial period, Westerners long characterized African art as "primitive." The term carries with it negative connotations of underdevelopment and poverty.
At the start of the twentieth century, art historians like Carl Einstein, Michał Sobeski and Leo Frobenius published important works about the theme, giving African art the status of an aesthetic object, not only of an ethnographic object. At the same time, artists like Paul Gauguin, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, André Derain, Henri Matisse, Joseph Csaky, and Amedeo Modigliani became aware of and inspired by, African art, amongst other art forms. These artists saw in African art a formal perfection and sophistication unified with phenomenal expressive power. The study of and response to African art, by artists at the beginning of the twentieth century facilitated an explosion of interest in the abstraction, organization, and reorganization of forms, and the exploration of emotional and psychological areas hitherto unseen in Western art.
Contemporary African Art
Africa is home to a thriving contemporary art and fine art culture. This has been under-studied until recently, due to scholars' and art collectors' emphasis on traditional art. Notable modern artists include El Anatsui, Marlene Dumas, William Kentridge, Karel Nel, Kendell Geers, Yinka Shonibare, Zerihun Yetmgeta, Odhiambo Siangla, George Lilanga, Elias Jengo, Olu Oguibe, Lubaina Himid, Bili Bidjocka and Henry Tayali. Art bienniales are held in Dakar, Senegal, and Johannesburg, South Africa.
Many contemporary African artists are represented in museum collections, and their art may sell for high prices at art auctions. Despite this, many contemporary African artists tend to have a difficult time finding a market for their work. Many contemporary African arts borrow heavily from traditional predecessors. Ironically, this emphasis on abstraction is seen by Westerners as an imitation of European and American Cubist and totemic artists, such as Pablo Picasso, Amedeo Modigliani and Henri Matisse, who, in the early twentieth century, were heavily influenced by traditional African art.
Since the late 20th century, artists such as Ibrahim El-Salahi and Fathi Hassan have emerged as significant early figures in the development of contemporary Black African art. However, the foundations of contemporary African artistic expression were laid earlier, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s in South Africa, where artists like Irma Stern, Cyril Fradan, and Walter Battiss played pioneering roles.
In more recent decades, the global art scene has shown growing interest in African contemporary art, largely thanks to the support of European galleries like the October Gallery in London and the involvement of prominent collectors such as Jean Pigozzi, Artur Walther, and Gianni Baiocchi. A pivotal moment for the international recognition of African art came with the appointment of Nigerian curator Okwui Enwezor as the artistic director of Documenta 11 in 2002.
A wide range of more-or-less traditional forms of art or adaptations of traditional style to contemporary taste is made for sale to tourists and others, including so-called "airport art". Several popular traditions assimilate Western influences into African styles such as the elaborate fantasy coffins of Southern Ghana, made in a variety of different shapes which represent the occupations or interests of the deceased or elevate their status.
Another notable contemporary African artist is Amir Nour, a Sudanese artist who lived in Chicago. In the 1960s he created a metal sculpture called Grazing at Shendi (1969) which consists of geometric shapes that connect with his memory of his homeland. The sculpture resembles grazing sheep in the distance.
Akan Art
In the 17th century, the area of present-day Ghana was a center for trade and cultural exchange. The states in the region were connected through trading networks and shared cultural beliefs but remained politically independent. The kingdom's economy, which grew through trade in gold, cloth, and enslaved people, supported the development of its artistic culture.
Akan art originated among the Akan people. Akan art includes traditions such as textiles, sculpture, Akan goldweights, and gold and silver jewelry. Akan art is characterized by a connection between visual and verbal expression and a blending of art and philosophy. Akan culture values gold above other metals, and it is used to represent supernatural elements, royal authority, and cultural values.
According to Asante oral tradition, their origins are linked to the arrival of a golden stool, which is believed to hold the soul of the Asante nation. In some Akan cultural beliefs, gold symbolized the sun and was associated with royal authority. It was often used in art to signify the king's importance, representing key cultural and social values.
Kente is a traditional, multi-colored, hand-woven cloth made from silk and cotton. It consists of interwoven cloth strips and is central to Ghanaian culture. According to oral tradition, Kente cloth originated from attempts to replicate spider webs through weaving. Kente cloth is recognized for its colors and intricate patterns. Kente cloth, deeply rooted in Akan culture, is said to be inspired by spider webs, as weavers aimed to replicate their intricate patterns. Renowned globally for its vibrant colors and designs, Kente was originally a representation of royal prestige and dominance.
Ashanti trophy head; circa 1870; pure gold; Wallace Collection (London). This artwork represents an enemy chief killed in battle.
Akan goldweights, known as mrammou, are brass weights used by West Africa’s Akan people for measuring in trade. Ownership of a full weight set indicated a man’s status. Beyond their utilitarian role, these weights, in their miniature forms, encapsulate West African culture. For example, Akan gold weights, made between 1400-1900, are miniature metal sculptures. Some symbolize proverbs, introducing a unique narrative aspect to African sculpture.
Nigerian Art
Nigerian art is inspired by the country's diverse folklore and traditional heritage. Art forms from Nigeria include stone carvings, pottery, glasswork, woodcarvings, and bronze works. Masks are part of the animist beliefs of the Yoruba people.
Pottery has a long tradition in Nigeria, with evidence of its production dating back to at least 100 B.C. Suleja, Abuja, and Ilorin are considered important centers of traditional pottery. The Yoruba use a local plant to create indigo-dyed batik cloth. Women traditionally perform the dyeing, while in the north, the craft is practiced exclusively by men. Weavers in many parts of the country produce textiles with lace-like designs.
Benin art originates from the Kingdom of Benin, a pre-colonial African empire in today’s South-South Nigeria. Created from the 13th century by the Edo people, the collection includes brass and bronze sculptures, portrait heads, and smaller artifacts. Many of these sculptures were created for royalty and were believed to possess magical powers. They mirrored the prevailing sociopolitical structures, often dominated by divine Kings or Ife. Two hundred pieces went to the British Museum, while European museums acquired the remainder.
Traditional vs. Contemporary Art
Traditional African art encompasses the iconic forms often showcased in museum collections. These pieces represent historical and cultural practices and are revered for their authenticity, craftsmanship, and significance. Wooden masks are prevalent in West African art, representing humans, animals, or mythical beings. Traditionally, they play crucial roles in rituals, including celebrations, initiations, and war preparations. A chosen dancer, donning the mask, enters a trance to connect with ancestors. Often embodying spirits, it’s believed ancestral spirits possess the mask wearer.
In recent years, the scope of African art has expanded to embrace all African cultures and their historical visual contributions. This inclusive approach offers a richer understanding of Africa’s diverse visual aesthetics. These artists often challenge Eurocentrism, globalization, and other themes, merging traditional art forms with modern techniques and tools.
African Art: A Summary
The histories and lineages of African art are as diverse as the communities and cultures that traverse the continent. From the ornate cave paintings of South Africa's Cederberg Mountains to the abstract masks of myriad regional traditions, African art incorporates an extraordinary array of objects, materials, media, and themes. One striking aspect of African painting, pottery, and sculpture to Western viewers might be its marked difference from historical works produced in the European Renaissance tradition, with their emphasis on vanishing-point perspective and a form of naturalistic representation.
Equally, traditional African art should be explored on its own terms and for the themes and motifs that unite much of it: for example, the production of objects and costumes for religious and ritual purposes. Artworks and Artists of Traditional African Art Progression of Art.
Traditional African art shares marked characteristics, in spite of its geographical differences. For example, many African sculptures are united by their intended function as talismans or vessels for communicating with the dead ancestors during religious events. As such, many works remind us of the close relationship between art and spirituality throughout human history; the fact that centuries-old traditions have survived in many African cultures gives us a vital window on the origins of human creativity.
Pottery is a key form for many African artistic cultures. Jugs and vessels were often created with a utilitarian or domestic function in mind, yet also with great attention to visual beauty and detail. The case of African pottery indicates the less rigorous boundary placed between fine art and practical craftsmanship than in the Western tradition. In fact, this approach mirrored twentieth-century Western movements such as Constructivism, again indicating the ways in which traditional African art predicts and preempts Western equivalents.
African art cannot be considered today apart from the controversies concerning its location in museums and galleries across the West. Works such as the Benin Bronzes - which the Nigerian government has repeatedly petitioned to have returned - were plundered by colonial empires and often sold on, hence their dispersal across Europe and North America. They therefore stand as markers of a global debate concerning the need for compensation and reparation following the violent subjugation of African societies by European states.
Tidbits Art History | Ep 17: The Benin Bronzes and Colonialism
The traditions of African art are rich in their variety of objects, materials, and media, including sculpture, pottery, metalwork, painting, and textiles. While artworks differ depending on geographical area, historically African art has shared some underlying characteristics - including the fact that, unlike in the Western world, objects are often created for religious, ritual, or practical functions.
Table of Key Characteristics and Examples
| Characteristic | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Emphasis on Human Figure | Central subject, symbolizing various roles and entities. | Benin Bronzes depicting royal figures. |
| Religious and Spiritual Significance | Art as a conduit to ancestors and deities. | Masks used in religious ceremonies. |
| Functionalism | Art integrated into everyday objects. | Decorated pottery and textiles. |
| Regional Variations | Diverse styles influenced by local cultures. | Akan goldweights symbolizing proverbs. |
| Use of Natural Materials | Wood, clay, ivory, and other local resources. | Shona sculptures carved from stone. |
