Textile production in India and Egypt encompasses the industries and processes involved in creating fabrics and garments. From ancient times through the period of industrialization, it played a vital role in both the economies and cultures of these regions. This term is linked to the themes of economic change, the impact of colonialism, and the globalization of trade during the spread of industrialization from 1750 to 1900.
Weaver at work in Maheshwar, India.
Ancient Textile Production
The history of textiles in India can be traced back to the earliest civilizations, as evidenced by archeological remains, including those of the Indus Valley civilization. The indigenous silk moth from Harappa suggests the use of silk in India as early as 3000 BCE. Dye residues of madder-dyed purple, wrapped around a pot dating back to 3000 B.C.E. were discovered near Mohenjo-Daro and point to the early traditions of spinning and weaving cotton.
6000 B.C. Cotton is grown and woven into cloth in India, Pakistan, and Eastern Africa. China is spinning and weaving silk into fine brocade and damask fabrics.
2700 B.C. Textiles are woven in India, Pakistan, Central Europe, and the Middle East. Spinning of wool & cotton fibers into yarn was done by hand using a distaff (stick) and a bowl in which to spin the stick.
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The Rigveda describes weavers as vasovaya, we know that both men and women practiced weaving during the early Vedic period, the male weavers were known as vaya, while the female weavers were known as vayitri. The early Vedic period refers to vasa and adhivasa as the lower and upper garments.
In 300 B.C., Arthashastra, a text written by Chanakya, explained the significance of textiles in both domestic and foreign trade. Indian textiles, by 100 C.E. had found a good market beyond the subcontinent. Indian muslin called "nebula," "gangetika,” and “venti” became popular in Rome.
During the Gupta period, one can see the social stratification through textiles, while fine cotton was used by the elites, coarse fabrics were used by the poor. There is evidence of the highly specialized technical skills of embroidery, Bandhani (tie and dye) and Patolu (Ikat weaving) that can be found in the numerous cave paintings of Ajanta in 600 C.E.
In contrast, Egyptian textile production historically emphasized linen made from flax, often used for burial garments and associated with ancient religious practices. The arid climate of Egypt helped preserve countless textiles like this one.
Linen tunic from Tarkhan, Egypt.
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Medieval Period and Trade
Throughout the centuries the Indian Ocean has served as a transregional network facilitating the circulation of Indian textiles to locations as far away as Southeast Asia, Central and East Asia, and East Africa. Western India, mainly the province of Gujarat, emerged as a production center for vibrantly dyed and block-printed textiles as early as 3500 BCE in sites near the Indus Valley.
Later, during the medieval period, Gujarat’s processing of raw material such as cotton-a scarce commodity-and the development of organic dyes created a demand for these textiles in places linked to the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea, especially Egypt.
Administrative records known as the “Genizah Documents” (written in Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic) found in the Genizah Synagogue in Fustat provide written evidence of the textile trade between Gujarat and Egypt from the tenth through the thirteenth centuries.
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Textile Techniques and Materials
India's rich natural resources for making and decorating textiles are unrivalled. Its varied geographical regions and climates provide a huge range of plant fibres and natural dyes. Cotton and silk are the raw materials most associated with Indian textiles.
Each part of India has its own weaving tradition, but Gujarat, on the west coast of India, was the main centre of innovation for more than 500 years. As Gujarati weavers migrated, weaving techniques and technologies spread all over India.
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The use of pigments on the textiles from India may be dated back to as early as the 14th century. Some of the traditional resist-dye techniques include Ikat, Bandhani and Leheriya which are the three primary resist-dyeing techniques prominent in India.
Examples of Textile Techniques
- Ikat: An ancient process of fabric designing in which threads are first planned into certain designs before dyeing.
- Bandhani: A resist-dyeing technique said to have originated in the 6th century, known for its brightly coloured textiles.
- Block printing: Dates back to as early as 1500 BCE, with block printed fabrics of Indian origin found in Egypt.
To obtain colored yarn for textiles in Egypt, the spun fibers had to be scoured in a hot alkaline bath to remove natural oils, waxes, and dirt that would interfere with the dyeing process. Dye material from plant sources would have been cultivated locally or imported, and each source required its own preparatory treatments before it could be applied to the yarn.
Impact of British Colonialism
During the 19th century, British colonial policies in India severely disrupted traditional textile production by promoting cheap imported textiles from Britain, leading to the decline of local industries. British colonialism had a profound impact on India's textile industry by imposing policies that favored imported British textiles over local handmade goods.
By the 1890s the resulting influx of foreign fabric into India was increasingly seen as a threat to its domestic textile economy. This sparked mass protest and galvanised a political movement to liberate India from British control.
Swadeshi Movement and Revival
In the early 1900s, Mahatma Gandhi and his followers ignited the Swadeshi movement, whose name translates to “of one’s own country.” They encouraged Indians to boycott English-made products (especially cloth and clothing) in an effort to overthrow their colonial English rulers. Gandhi encouraged people to learn to use a spinning wheel, so they could make their own cloth.
After winning independence from British rule in 1947, India's new government prioritised modernisation, and textile-makers had to respond to increasingly urban environments.
| Period | Key Events |
|---|---|
| Ancient Times | Early cotton and silk production in India and linen production in Egypt. |
| Medieval Period | Indian Ocean trade network facilitates textile circulation. Gujarat emerges as a textile production center. |
| 19th Century | British colonial policies disrupt traditional Indian textile production. |
| Early 20th Century | Swadeshi movement promotes local textile production and boycotts British goods. |
| Post-Independence | Modernization and government support for hand-weaving and textile crafts. |
Modern Textile Industry in India
Today, India is the second largest producer of textile fiber in the world. Perhaps not surprisingly, cotton makes up 60% of India’s textile industry. Silk is the second most common fiber produced here. The third main fiber produced in India is jute: a soft and durable plant fiber mainly spun into twine, rope, burlap, hessian cloth, carpets, and matting.
Jute Bundles at Narayanganj, Bangladesh
The textile industry continues to be the second-largest employment generating sector in India. It offers direct employment to over 35 million people in the country. India is the world's second largest exporter of textiles and clothing, and in the fiscal year 2022, the exports stood at US$44.4 billion.
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