There may be no greater tribute to a society's ingenuity and vision than Egypt's Great Pyramid of Giza. Originally standing 481 feet (147 meters) tall, the Great Pyramid towers over monuments like the Statue of Liberty and Big Ben. Ancient monuments and grand temples aside, the ancient Egyptians invented a number of items which one simply takes for granted in the modern day. Ancient Egypt, one of the earliest and most advanced civilizations, made significant contributions to science and technology.
Over the thousands of years ancient Egyptians thrived, they ushered in perhaps the most advanced civilization the world had ever known, and many of the fixtures of their society are still commonplace. Ancient Egyptians believe sickness was because the gods or evil spirits were angry, so they often resorted first to offering prayer for healing. The Ancient Egyptians were so successful because they were able to adapt to the River Nile.
The river's flooding was quite predictable and the Egyptians learned how to control it for irrigation purposes, creating a vast, fertile valley of crops. The Ancient Egyptians were pioneers in architecture, medicine and mathematics. They invented the calendar, ways to measure distances, improvements in irrigation, medical surgery and also applied their knowledge to architecture.
Let's delve into some of the most remarkable scientific achievements of ancient Egypt:
Medicine
One of the most remarkable aspects of Egyptian science was their understanding of medicine. The Egyptians practiced a variety of medical techniques and had a deep knowledge of the human body and its functions. Though the Egyptians' Ebers Papyrus, the most ancient text concerning medical practice, includes more than 700 remedies, charms and incantations that date back to 3400 B.C.E.
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They were among the first to recognize the importance of hygiene and cleanliness, which led to the development of sophisticated methods of embalming and mummification. Ancient Egyptian physicians performed surgeries, treated wounds, and understood the use of medicinal herbs. They used natural remedies, such as honey and opium, to treat infections and pain. The Edwin Smith Papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document which attempts to describe and analyze the brain: given this, it might be seen as the very beginnings of neuroscience.
The rational and practical nature of the papyrus is illustrated in 48 case histories, which are listed according to each organ. The papyrus begins by addressing injuries to the body along with treatments (including Rhinoplasty), detailing injuries in descending anatomical order like ...
Engineering and Architecture
The Egyptians are best known for their monumental architectural achievements, especially the construction of the pyramids. The Egyptian structures are among the largest constructions ever conceived and built by humans. They constitute one of the most potent and enduring symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization. The great temples of ancient Egypt arose from the same technological skill one sees on the small scale of household goods. The central value observed in creating any of these goods or structures was a careful attention to detail.
The Egyptians are noted in many aspects of their culture as a very conservative society, and this adherence to a certain way of accomplishing tasks can clearly be seen in their construction of the pyramids and other monuments. The creation of an obelisk, for example, seems to have always involved the exact same procedure performed in precisely the same way. The Step Pyramid of Djoser was successfully built according to the precepts of the vizier Imhotep (c. 2667-2600 BCE), and when his plans were deviated from by Sneferu during of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613- c. 2181 BCE), the result was the so-called 'collapsed pyramid' at Meidum.
The Great Pyramid of Giza, built during the Fourth Dynasty, remains one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Egyptians were experts in the use of mathematics and engineering to design and construct these massive structures. They developed advanced techniques in surveying, using tools like the "merkhet" and "plumb lines" to measure angles and ensure precise alignment. The design of the pyramids was based on mathematical principles, and the Egyptians employed a system of ramps and levers to move heavy stones.
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Because of their immense size, building pyramids posed special problems of both organization and engineering. Constructing the Great Pyramid of the pharaoh Khufu, for example, required that more than two million blocks weighing from two to more than sixty tons be formed into a structure covering two football fields and rising in a perfect pyramidal shape 480 feet into the sky. Its construction involved vast numbers of workers which, in turn, presented complex logistical problems concerning food, shelter, and organization.
Millions of heavy stone blocks needed not only to be quarried and raised to great heights but also set together with precision in order to create the desired shape. In order to accomplish this, the vizier would delegate responsibility to subordinates who would further delegate tasks to others.
The bureaucracy of the Old Kingdom of Egypt set the paradigm for the rest of the country's history in accounting for every aspect of a building project and making sure each step was proceeding according to plan. The technological skill required to build the Great Pyramid still mystifies scholars in the present day.
According to many Egyptologists, mathematics in Egypt was entirely practical. Rosalie David, for example, claims, "Mathematics served basically utilitarian purposes in Egypt and does not seem to have been regarded as a theoretical science" (217). Mathematics was used in record keeping, in developing the schematics for machines such as the water pump, in calculating tax rates, & in drawing up designs & siting locations for building projects.
The Egyptians invented and used many simple machines, such as the ramp and the lever, to aid construction processes. In civil engineering the slope (ratio of rise/run) is often referred to as a grade or gradient. Ramps have been reported as being widely used in Ancient Egypt. A ramp is an inclined plane, or a plane surface set at an angle (other than a right angle) against a horizontal surface. The inclined plane permits one to overcome a large resistance by applying a relatively small force through a longer distance than the load is to be raised.
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One of the most impressive of Ramesses' monuments is his temple of Abu Simbel which was precisely designed so that, twice a year on 21 February and 21 October, the sun shines directly into the sanctuary of the temple to illuminate the statues of Ramesses and the god Amun.
Abu Simbel Temple
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Mathematics
Mathematics was integral to the daily life and architecture of Ancient Egypt. The Egyptians developed an advanced number system based on units of 10 and used simple arithmetic for practical purposes such as measuring land, calculating taxes, and building structures. They understood basic geometry and used it in the construction of buildings and monuments. The Egyptians also made advances in the field of mathematics through their knowledge of fractions and their ability to perform complex calculations.
Ancient writers such as Herodotus and Pliny, however, consistently mention the Egyptians as the source of theoretical mathematics, and they are not the sole sources on this. Many ancient writers, Diogenes Laertius and his sources among them, point to philosophers such as Pythagoras and Plato, who both studied in Egypt, and the importance of mathematical knowledge in their belief systems.
Plato regarded the study of geometry necessary for clarity of mind and it is thought he took this concept from Pythagoras who first learned it from the priests in Egypt. The beauty of their development in mathematical science is especially noticeable in one of their monuments that is still awe-inspiring until this very day â The Temple of Abu Simbel in Aswan, Southern Egypt.
Astronomy and the Calendar
Astronomy was important to the ancient Egyptians on two levels: the spiritual and the practical. Egypt was thought to be a perfect reflection of the land of the gods and the afterlife a mirror image of one's life on earth. Astronomy played a crucial role in Ancient Egyptian society. The Egyptians closely observed the night sky and used their understanding of celestial bodies for both practical and religious purposes.
They used the stars to align their monuments and determine the timing of agricultural activities, particularly the flooding of the Nile River, which was essential for their crops. The Egyptians' knowledge of the stars led to the creation of the first known solar calendar, consisting of 365 days. This calendar, based on the solar year, was crucial for predicting seasonal changes and organizing the agricultural cycle.
They used stellar observations to determine the true north and were able to orientate the pyramids with great accuracy...Each temple was possibly aligned toward a star that had a particular association with the deity resident in that building. On a more practical level, the stars could tell one when it was going to rain, when it was nearing time to plant or harvest crops, and even the best times for making important decisions such as building a home or temple or starting a business venture.
The sun becomes perpendicular on the face of the statue of King Ramses II (one of the historical Ancient Egyptian kings) inside the temple only twice a year; on October 22 and February 22. Surprisingly, these two days turned to be the kingâs birthday and his coronation day respectively.
The Sun first enters from the front side of the temple to a distance of 200 meters reaching the Holy of Holies, which includes a statue of Ramses II, surrounded by statues of two sun gods; Ra-Hor and Amun-Ra and the Sun then stays perpendicular on the Kingâs face for 20 minutes. Interestingly, thereâs one statue in the temple that the sun never touches: The statue of the god Ptah, who was considered the god of darkness.
This is called the solar phenomenon in Abu Simbel temple. The temple of Abu Simbel not only impresses through its appearance but also through its mathematical intricacies.
Agriculture and Irrigation
Ancient Egypt was an agricultural society and so naturally developed innovations to help cultivate the land. Agriculture was the backbone of Ancient Egyptian society, and the Egyptians developed advanced techniques to cultivate their land, thanks to their deep understanding of the environment. The most significant technological advancement was their irrigation system, which allowed them to harness the waters of the Nile River to irrigate crops in the dry desert.
The Egyptians constructed canals, basins, and shadufs (a type of hand-operated irrigation device) to control water flow and ensure that crops received adequate irrigation. This innovation was crucial for growing staple crops like wheat and barley, which were essential for sustaining the population. All of this work would have been for nothing, however, if the seeds were denied sufficient water and so regular irrigation of the land was extremely important.
Egyptian irrigation techniques were so effective they were implemented by the cultures of Greece and Rome. New irrigation techniques were introduced during the Second Intermediate Period by the people known as the Hyksos, who settled in Avaris in Lower Egypt, and the Egyptians improved upon them; notably through the expanded use of the canal. The yearly inundation of the Nile overflowing its banks and depositing rich soil throughout the valley was essential to Egyptian life but irrigation canals were necessary to carry water to outlying farms and villages as well as to maintain even saturation of crops near the river.
Shaduf
Early farmers dug trenches from the Nile shore to the farmlands, using draw wells and then the Shaduf, a primitive machine that allowed them to raise levels of water from the Nile into canals...Fields thus irrigated produced abundant annual crops. From the predynastic times agriculture was the mainstay of the Egyptian economy.
Most Egyptians were employed in agricultural labors, either on their own lands or on the estates of the temples or nobles. Control of irrigation became a major concern and provincial officials were held responsible for the regulation of water. Architecture surrounding these canals was sometimes quite ornate as in the case of the pharaoh Ramesses the Great (1279-1213 BCE) and his city of Per-Ramesses in Lower Egypt.
Chemistry and Cosmetics
The Egyptians also made significant contributions to the field of chemistry, particularly in the area of cosmetics and preservation. Ancient Egyptian jewelry had both religious and symbolic meaning. Egyptians wore jewelry to please the gods. They believed the more jewelry they wore, the more the gods would bless them. But the jewelry also symbolized wealth and power.
The ancient Egyptians were skilled in the preparation of perfumes, oils, and cosmetics, which they used for both personal grooming and religious rituals. They developed techniques for extracting oils from plants and flowers, creating a wide variety of fragrances. Additionally, the Egyptians are credited with discovering methods of preserving food and bodies through the use of embalming and mummification.
Just as in modern times, bad breath in ancient Egypt often was a symptom of poor dental health. The Egyptians had specialists for many medical problems, but unfortunately, they didn't have dentists or oral surgeons to fix their deteriorating teeth and gums. Instead, they simply suffered, and scientists who've examined mummies have found severely worn teeth and evidence of abscesses, even in youthful Egyptians.
As we mentioned previously, the Egyptians had a lot of trouble with their teeth, in large part because their bread had grit and sand in it, which wore out their enamel. While they didn't have dentistry, they did make some effort to keep their teeth clean. Archaeologists have found toothpicks buried alongside mummies, apparently placed there so that they could clean food debris from between their teeth in the afterlife.
But the Egyptians also contributed an innovation to dental hygiene, in the form of toothpaste. Early ingredients included the powder of ox hooves, ashes, burnt eggshells and pumice, which probably made for a less-than-refreshing morning tooth-care ritual. Archaeologists recently found what appears to be a more advanced toothpaste recipe and how-to-brush guide written on papyrus that dates back to the Roman occupation in the fourth century C.E.
Toothbrushes and toothpaste were invented because of the grit and sand which found its way into the bread and vegetables of the daily meals. The image presented in the modern day by art and movies of Egyptians with exceptionally white teeth is misleading; dental problems were common in ancient Egypt, and few, if any, had an all-white smile.
Dentistry developed to deal with these difficulties but never seems to have advanced at the same rate as other areas of medicine. While it appears doctors were fairly successful in their techniques, dentists were less so. Toothpaste was made of rock salt, mint, dried iris petals, and pepper, according to one recipe from the 4th century CE, which dentists in 2003 CE tried and found to be quite effective (although it made their gums bleed).
Another earlier recipe suggested ground-up ox hooves and ash, which, mixed with one's saliva, created a cleansing paste for the teeth. The ancient Egyptians invented toothbrushes, toothpaste, ink, cosmetics, paper and even the very first form of a breath mint.
Fashion was only part of the reason for the Egyptians' notoriously heavy hand when applying eyeliner. For the Egyptians, makeup was not limited to women. Status and appearance went hand in hand, and as far as the upper class was concerned, the more makeup the better. They combined soot with a mineral called galena to create a black ointment known as kohl, which is still popular today.
Egyptian woman applying makeup
Even more impressive, some cosmetically minded cultures still create makeup using the same techniques pioneered by the Egyptians thousands of years ago. Since they first invented eye makeup as far back as 4000 B.C.E., it's never gone out of style. Sure, eye makeup might not rank alongside fire or the wheel as one of the most important discoveries in human history, but it gives the Egyptians a run for longevity.
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