The enslavement of human beings occupies a painful and tragic space in world history. Many societies tolerated and condoned human slavery for centuries. The Transatlantic Slave Trade represents one of the most violent, traumatizing, and horrific eras in world history. The African continent was left destabilized and vulnerable to conquest and violence for centuries. In the “colonies” that became the United States, slavery took on uniquely appalling features.
This report is a first step in helping people understand the scope and scale of the devastation created by slavery in America and the Transatlantic Slave Trade’s influence on a range of contemporary issues. Many attributes of slavery began to change when European settlers intent on colonizing the Americas used violence and military power to compel forced labor from enslaved people. Indigenous people became the first victims of forced labor and enslavement at the hands of Europeans in the Americas.
Committed to extracting profit from their colonies in the Americas, European powers turned to the African continent. To meet their ever-growing need for labor, they initiated a massive global undertaking that relied on abduction, human trafficking, and racializing enslavement at a scale without precedent in human history. Europe had no contact with Sub-Saharan Africa before the Portuguese, seeking wealth and gold, sailed down the western coast of Africa and reached the Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana) in 1471. Over the following decades, the Spanish, English, French, Dutch, Danish, and Swedes began to make contact with Sub-Saharan Africa as well. By the 1600s, every major European power had established trading relationships with Sub-Saharan Africa and was participating in the transportation of kidnapped Africans to the Americas in some way.
Driven by the desire for wealth, these European powers shifted from acquiring gold and other goods in Sub-Saharan Africa to trafficking in human beings. Although some African officials and merchants acquired wealth through the export of millions of people, the Transatlantic Slave Trade devastated and de-stabilized societies and economies across Africa.
Transatlantic Slave Trade Routes
Read also: Mental Health Options in Savannah, GA
The Horrors of the Middle Passage
Driven by the increasing external demand from white enslavers and traders, African kidnappers traveled inland and kidnapped people from their villages and towns. In the 18th century, 70% of Africans trafficked in the Transatlantic Slave Trade were free people who had been “snatched from their homes and communities.” At the coast, kidnapped Africans were forced into barracoons, slave pens, and dungeons within prison castles to await the ships that would take them across the Atlantic.
Kidnapped Africans were forced to board slave trading ships that stayed docked-sometimes for months-until they had loaded enough human cargo to make the passage sufficiently profitable for the enslavers. African captives were forced to undergo invasive and dehumanizing examinations before they boarded enslavers’ ships. Traders invasively groped the breasts, buttocks, and vaginal areas of women and young girls, allegedly to assess their childbearing ability. Men and boys were similarly molested around the groin, scrotum, and anus.
Captives were then assigned a number and loaded onto ships, separated by gender and tightly packed into the holds under conditions that were noxious and extreme. Men were typically “locked spoonways” together, naked and forced to lie in urine, feces, blood, and mucus, with little to no fresh air. Trafficked Africans were forced to lie chained and manacled for weeks during the journey, unable to stretch out or stand except during limited time on deck. The foul conditions were a breeding ground for disease and vermin; some captives suffocated from the lack of air below deck.
African women and girls suffered similarly horrific conditions in the hold-and they were uniquely terrorized by the crew. Sexual assault of African women was so commonplace that Alexander Falconbridge later testified that sailors were “permitted to indulge their passions among them at pleasure.” Cruelty and terrorism were common on trafficking vessels operated by Europeans.
One account from a white sailor reported that eight to 10 captives were brought to the top deck one night “for making a little noise in the rooms.” Sailors were then ordered to “tie them up to the booms [horizontal poles extending from the base of the mast], flog them very severely with a wire cat [a whip with multiple tails of wire], and afterwards clap the thumb-screws upon them, and leave them in that situation till morning.” These excruciating conditions lasted for weeks and sometimes for months. A typical voyage took five or six weeks; some took two or three months.
Read also: Experience Fad's Fine African Cuisine
When the ships landed in ports across North and South America, the kidnapped Africans who survived the Middle Passage were subjected to a renewed round of examinations and molestation by enslavers before they were sold again and forced to do hard labor that often resulted in their untimely deaths. Of the enslaved men, women, and children who survived the Middle Passage, approximately 90% arrived in the Caribbean or South America.
Slavery in the Americas
The Portuguese, Spanish, French, British, and Dutch controlled slavery in the Americas, and each followed different political, legal, and cultural practices. There is no value in comparing the relative “harshness” of slavery across the Americas; the brutality and inhumanity of slavery was universal. Moreover, conditions in the South American and Caribbean colonies were horrific-the vast majority of enslaved people in these colonies worked on sugar plantations, which were notoriously harsh environments. Factors specific to each European power and its colonies distinguished the experiences of enslaved men and women across the Americas.
The side streets leading to River Street in Savannah run parallel to the Savannah River. They are uniquely paved with ballast stones. These stones were originally used in the hulls of ships to balance cargo and prevent them from becoming top-heavy. Savannah, which was the third-largest slave port in the United States (with Charleston holding the top spot), has a significant number of streets lined with these stones.
The structures have semi-circular archways leading into the interior of the dwelling. The semi-circular arch was developed by the Romans and are self-supporting structures that are stabilized by the force of gravity. They are very stable, efficient and strong - capable of holding greater loads. The archway structure is also economical because it requires no beams. What an ideal holding space for hoarding a greater number of people with no regard to their comfort or needs. One sign at the entrance informs onlookers about Charles Blaney Cluskey, and identifies him as the architect of the vaults, as they’re referred to on the signs.
Another sign educates about the research conducted to determine if the vaults had been used to hold captive Africans. Young men in the Earl T. Shinholster Leadership Institute initiated the request for such research in 2012. Unfortunately, the research team, consisting of city archivist, archaeologist and students from Georgia Southern University, were not able to discover historical clues that revealed the usage of the four vaults.
Read also: The Story Behind Cachapas
Factors Walk in Savannah
Savannah's Hidden Black History
Consider, for example, the Montmollin Building in City Market, located at 21 Barnard Street. This building sits right in the heart of our City Market and is currently a store offering a variety of items for pets - collars, toys, food, etc. However, less that 200 years ago, captured Africans were stored in this building. Here they were inspected and bought and sold as enslaved people. From 1850s until well after the Emancipation Proclamation, the building owner, John S. Montmollin, and his third floor tenant, Alexander Bryan, used the building to hold and sell captured Africans and their enslaved descendants. The business of the buying and selling enslaved Blacks ended in this building only after Sherman’s March to the Sea culminated with the capture of Savannah and the subsequent freeing of enslaved people. There are no signs or commemoration to the connection of this building to the slave trade.
Most people know that First African Baptist is the oldest continual Black congregation in the US. Organized in 1773, it is older than the formal existence of this country. According to African custom, the doors of property that is owned outright are painted red. In keeping with this custom, the congregation intentionally painted the doors to the sanctuary red.
It’s easy then, to imagine a City Market lined with businesses owned by Blacks that catered to Blacks. But Black entrepreneurship is not what you see now.
The Black entrepreneurs needed a bank they could trust to hold their profits. Many utilized the Wage Earner Bank located at 460 West Broad. It is the address for the current Ralph Mark Gilbert Civil Rights Museum. When you visit that Civil Rights Museum, not only are you learning about local Black history, you’re also touching Savannah’s hidden Black history in plain sight.
Many people assume porches are a European architectural concept. Think again. Africans are communal by nature. The porch, as we refer to them today, are actually concepts that originated in Africa where people gathered to talk and commune with another. From River Street to Broad Street to Martin Luther King, Jr. Blvd., and through the City Market area are gems of history. The next time you’re in the area, remember to look for pieces of Savannah’s hidden Black history in plain sight.
Over the course of forty-eight years, Savannah played an integral role in the Atlantic slave trade. Although Savannah’s participation in the slave trade was initially miniscule, the port of Savannah has historical transnational importance as a receiver of enslaved West Africans during the late eighteenth century. Despite a ban on African slavery in early Georgia, enslaved people and slavery were an integral part of the colony’s development. Following the settlement of Savannah in 1733, enslaved people from South Carolina cleared land, tended cattle, and labored on farms. By the late 1740s enslaved people from South Carolina were openly sold in Savannah.
The repeal of the ban on African slavery marked the beginning of Savannah’s involvement in the Atlantic slave trade. Savannah’s propitious location near the Atlantic Ocean and the coastal region’s navigable rivers and waterways allowed commercial vessels to enter and leave the area easily. The demand for African enslaved labor increased with the establishment of rice and Sea Island cotton plantations in the Georgia Lowcountry. As rice became a profitable export crop in coastal Georgia, merchants in Savannah imported Africans from the rice and grain coast of West Africa, which extended from the Senegambian region to Sierra Leone.
Before enslaved West Africans were imported directly, Savannah’s merchants and planters secured African captives via the intercolonial trade with South Carolina and the Atlantic trade with the Caribbean. In 1747 the merchant firm of James Habersham and Francis Harris built one of several commercial vessels, the schooner Endeavour, to engage in the intercolonial trade. The Endeavour exported goods to South Carolina for reexport to Britain and imported enslaved people from South Carolina for sale in Savannah.
The success of the Endeavour led to the construction of additional commercial vessels that engaged in the intercolonial trade and the Atlantic trade with the Caribbean and Africa. During the early period of Savannah’s involvement in the trade, from 1755 to 1767, 63 percent of enslaved people imported into Savannah originated from the Caribbean, and 24 percent came directly from Africa’s rice and grain coast.
Throughout their involvement in the Atlantic slave trade, merchants and planters in Savannah imported enslaved people from St. James and Goree Island, two of Britain’s significant supply zones for captive workers. Other supply zones for the Savannah market included the British colony Sierra Leone, located along the Windward Coast of West Africa.
The earliest direct shipment of West Africans to Savannah occurred via the Liverpool trade in 1766 when the Liverpool sloop Maryborow arrived in Savannah from Senegal with seventy-eight enslaved people. The voyage across the Atlantic Ocean from West Africa to Savannah lasted between four and six months. The duration of the voyage combined with the prolonged confinement increased the occurrence of infectious diseases.
In 1798 the state legislature banned the direct importation of Africans. This measure preceded by ten years the national ban on the slave trade from Africa, which led to an illegal slave trade that persisted for many decades. The deep waterways of coastal Georgia offered good harbor for this trade, which continued as late as 1858, when the slave ship Wanderer landed near St.
African American Monument in Savannah
Savannah's Cultural Renaissance
In the Heart of It All is a tribute to the charming landscape of Savannah, Georgia - a diverse, captivating cultural story waiting to be explored. Telfair Museums, the oldest public art museum in the South, is a testament to the city’s commitment to the arts. Additionally, the influence of the Savannah College of Art and Design (SCAD) further enhances the city’s reputation as a thriving hub for creativity and artistic expression.
The melodic heartbeat of Savannah resonates across its squares and along the riverfront, encapsulating a city deeply rooted in a rich musical legacy. Savannah’s musical heritage dates back to 1859 when James Lord Pierpont published the timeless tune “Jingle Bells” while serving as a local Unitarian church’s organist and music director. Jazz luminaries such as hard bop drummer Ben Riley, bassist Ben Tucker, saxophonist Sahib Shihab, and trombonist Trummy Young have left an indelible mark on Savannah’s musical landscape.
Savannah’s culinary story is a delectable fusion of history and flavor. Its nickname, “the Hostess City,” is rooted in Savannah’s evolving food history, reflecting its journey from its origins to the dynamic culinary landscape it embodies today. In Savannah’s culinary narrative, the historical significance of Habersham House, now famously recognized as The Olde Pink House, stands as a testament to the city’s rich cultural tapestry. Delving into the culture and folkways of the Gullah Geechee tradition, which profoundly informs local life, provides a unique lens through which to understand the culinary evolution of this captivating city.
The Gullah people are the descendants of African Americans who were enslaved on Southern cotton and rice plantations. For centuries, they lived in relative isolation on the sea islands and in coastal communities along the Southeastern seaboard.
Experience Savannah's Rich Gullah Geechee Heritage
The Gullah region historically spanned from North Carolina’s coast to North Florida’s coast. The Gullah people, along with their language, are also known as Geechee. This name presumedly originates from the Ogeechee River near Savannah. Originally, “Gullah” referred to the Creole dialect of English spoken by the Gullah and Geechee communities. Over time, the term has evolved, now representing their unique creole language and cultural identity.
One of Savannah’s most significant historical moments is the site of the Weeping Time. Over two rain-soaked days in 1859, Georgia’s largest slave auction took place. Located on River Street in downtown Savannah, the African American Monument honors the contributions of Black residents to the city’s history.
Savannah is home to a vibrant Geechee community waiting to be discovered. Once a major slave port for over a century, the city offers an abundance of cultural sites and experiences to help you connect with its rich history. Savannah’s flagship museums for African-American and Gullah-Geechee Heritage. The Beach Institute was founded in 1865 by the Colored Education Committee at the dawn of the Reconstruction Era, as the first school built specifically for the education of emancipated African-Americans in Savannah, GA.
Delve into the rich history of West African tribes forced into slavery in Savannah, who labored to build the warehouses along River Street. and lasts approximately one hour. You then stop at The Historic Second African Baptist Church, where you will savor authentic Gullah Geechee foodways and storytelling.
The Port of Savannah: A Legacy of Trade
Savannah’s port is both unique and complicated in the history of port cities In the America’s. From is founding near a creek village in 1733 to the present it has remained an important location for the global economy. The history of Savannah’s river port begins with slave grown rice and cotton for the triangle trade to timber and pulp at the turn of the century.
Since 17 Savannah exported slave-grown local rice and some Sea Island cotton (1992 Joyce Chaplin). The 1834 arrival of the railroad allowed what was then the capital of Georgia to export slave-grown cotton from the interior. In addition to crops, Savannah was home to the largest industrial plantation in the country. The McCalprin plantation (now demolished), with over 400 slaves, cut lumber and produced most of the bricks that built Savannah prior to the Civil War. Indeed enslaved people in Savannah built virtually all of the buildings in the city up to 1861 without compensation. Indeed following the war, their descendants continue to provide most of the construction labor.
The surviving buildings from the slave trade include the 1840 the Cluskey Embankement Stores, John Stoddard’s Upper and Lower Range Warehouses, begun in 1858 along with a small handful of 1850s warehouses (next image). Later buildings include the 1876 Thomas Gamble Building, the 1886 Cotton Exchange (now Masonic Lodge), by William Preston.
By 1874 exports expanded beyond cotton to include naval stores derived from the abundant southern pine forest, including pitch, resin, timber, and turpentine. By the 1920s the industrial port economy on what was once Franklin began to fail, with the exception of the new power plant built in 1911. The once prosperous river front was failing, except for timber shipping, as the steamship and export ports moved up and down river, leaving what was once Franklin street more and more abandoned.
By 1960s more than half the historic buildings in what is now the historic district were lost and what was once a bustling waterfront with the exception of a bar, two restaurants and a couple of business, was mostly vacant and abandoned. By the early 1970s only four shops, one bar and one restaurant remained on what was now mostly a vacant dirt parking (previous image). The Urban Renewal of River Street Project turned the riverfront from abandoned dirt wasteland with empty old warehouses into developed walkways and newly designed planters and low sitting walls inspired by the squares. Savannah used Federal grants of $7.3 million dollars including funds from the Department of Housing and Urban Development, Community Development Block Grants and the Environmental Protection Agency, along with city money.
Tourism began to spike in the early 1990s due to a number of events helped to revitalize the Historic District and the Riverfront. The Savannah College of Art and Design, founded in 1979 purchased and adapted a several abandoned buildings in the Historic Landmark District, bringing much needed life and income to the city by 1990.
In 2002, after a ten-year struggle, Dorothy Spradley’s monument to African American Slaves went up below City Hall arguably the first marker to publicly acknowledge the river’s slave-based history. In 2018 the City was warned by the National Park Service that it may lose its Historic Landmark designation, moving its rating from satisfactory to threatened. The city does not have an archaeological ordinance, allowing new development to excavate the past and dump it down river. What is more the city often subsidize hotel development with debt and tax exemptions within the historic district, in a desperate scramble for the tourist and non-resident tax income.
New cranes continued to arrive from the 1990s through 2018 Today Port of Georgia is unique in the United States as it is the only port that exports almost as much as it imports. The Port employs more people in the region than tourism and facilitates the growing manufacturing centers around Savannah including Gulfstream, JCB, International Paper, Koch Industries’ Georgia-Pacific, and European chemical giant BASF.
Port of Savannah
