Ancient Egypt, a cradle of civilization, flourished along the lower reaches of the Nile River in Northeast Africa. It emerged from prehistoric Egypt around 3150 BC, when Upper and Lower Egypt were unified. This civilization, with its rich history and culture, continues to fascinate and inspire people around the world.
Ancient Egyptian cities and other sites following the Nile up to the Fifth Cataract.
The Rise and Fall of Kingdoms
The history of ancient Egypt unfolded as a series of stable kingdoms interspersed by periods of relative instability. The pinnacle of ancient Egyptian power was achieved during the New Kingdom, which extended its rule to much of Nubia and a considerable portion of the Levant. After this period, Egypt entered an era of slow decline.
Over the course of its history, it was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign civilizations, including the Hyksos, the Kushites, the Assyrians, the Persians, and the Greeks and then the Romans. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC.
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The Significance of the Nile
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the Nile's conditions for agriculture. Without the Nile River, all of Egypt would be desert. The predictable flooding of the Nile and controlled irrigation of its fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and thereby substantial social and cultural development.
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The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. When this happens, floods cover the river’s valleys, leaving sediments needed for trees, plants and crops to grow. Ancient Egyptians oriented their entire world according to the Nile's flow. Their words for "north" and "south" literally meant "downstream" and "upstream," while "east" and "west" were expressed as "left" and "right" when facing upstream.
Achievements of Ancient Egypt
Among the many achievements of ancient Egypt are:
- The quarrying, surveying, and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks.
- A system of mathematics.
- A practical and effective system of medicine.
- Irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques.
- The first known planked boats.
- Egyptian faience and glass technology.
- New forms of literature.
- The earliest known peace treaty, which was ratified with the Anatolia-based Hittite Empire.
Its art and architecture were widely copied and its antiquities were carried off to be studied, admired, or coveted in the far corners of the world. Likewise, its monumental ruins inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for millennia.
Daily Life and Culture
Most people in ancient Egypt were farmers. They lived with their families in houses made of mud bricks that were near the Nile River. Ancient Egyptians also like to have fun! They swam and canoed in the Nile, played board games, and they enjoyed making music and dancing.
Both Egyptian men and women wore make-up. The eye paint was usually green (made from copper) or black (made from lead). Cats were considered sacred animals by the Ancient Egyptians.
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Beliefs About the Afterlife
The afterlife was incredibly important to the Egyptians. Ancient Egyptians believed death marked the beginning of a journey to eternal life. Being mummified-the process of preserving a body-was an important part of how Egyptians believed their soul would enter the afterlife. So were tombs. These burial chambers were filled with things a person would need there: food, games, and even underwear!
Ancient Egyptians believed in more than 2,000 deities! They had gods for everything, from dangers to chores! According to legend, ancient Egyptian gods also helped people in the afterlife. Some, like the jackal-headed god Anubis, helped guide people to the underworld, where they would be judged by its ruler, the god Osiris.
Monuments and Landmarks
Egypt's ancient monuments tell stories that modern visitors can still experience firsthand. The iconic Pyramids of Giza remain the ancient world's last wonder. Just east of the Pyramids of Giza sits the enigmatic Great Sphinx, one of ancient Egypt's most recognisable monuments.
Near modern-day Luxor lies the Karnak Temple Complex, the largest religious building ever constructed. On the west bank of the Nile opposite Luxor lies the Valley of the Kings, a remote desert valley that served as the final resting place for pharaohs and nobles during Egypt's New Kingdom period.
The pyramids of Giza are among the most recognizable symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization.
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Ancient Egyptian Inventions
Along with the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians were the first people to develop their language into a codified form of writing. Papyrus sheets are the earliest paper-like material. The Egyptians mixed vegetable gum, soot and bee wax to make black ink. The solar calendar was devised by the Egyptians through recording the yearly reappearance of Sirius (the Dog Star) in the eastern sky. The Edwin Smith Papyrus shows the Egyptians invented medical surgery. The Egyptian invented eye makeup as far back as 4000 B.C.
A Lasting Legacy
The culture is astonishing enough on its own. Egypt remains highly influential across different areas of culture and vast swaths of time and space. The more we know about what came before, the better we can grasp everything that has happened since.
Few civilizations have enjoyed the longevity and global cultural reach of ancient Egypt. Despite portraying significant stability over a vast period of time, their civilization was not as static as it may appear at first glance, particularly if viewed through our modern eyes and cultural perspectives.
Key Historical Periods of Ancient Egypt
| Period | Approximate Dates | Key Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Early Dynastic Period | ca 3100 B.C. to ca 2575 B.C. | Early pharaohs worked to keep the two lands under their control. |
| Old Kingdom | ca 2575 B.C. to ca 2150 B.C. | The “Age of the Pyramids,” pharaohs associated with the sun god Ra. |
| First Intermediate Period | ca 2130 B.C. to ca 1938 B.C. | Pharaohs lost power, local leaders took control. |
| Middle Kingdom | ca 1938 B.C. to ca 1630 B.C. | Mentuhotep II reunited the country, construction of Karnak Temple began. |
| Second Intermediate Period | ca 1630 B.C. to ca 1540 B.C. | Weak pharaohs again lost control, Hyksos ruled in the north. |
| New Kingdom | ca 1540 B.C. to 1075 B.C. | Egyptians took back control, rulers like Hatshepsut, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramses II. |
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