For a long time, it was a widely held belief that no wild horse inhabited the African continent, although the genus Equus was seen throughout the Quaternary period in various forms; some in the ancestry of zebras and others as donkeys. The species caballus, the horse, did not take its current form until the Pleistocene, a million years ago. It is the culmination of many descendants dating back to the Eocene (55 to 34 million years ago) and which, four to five million years ago, gave rise to the genus Equus in North America.
Two to three million years later, the horse was reported to have crossed Beringia and reached Eurasia, then Africa, where its presence was, for some two million years, in the form of a zebra, Equus stenonis. All the stages of its development could be followed in North America, where a long, continuous transformation has made it a prototype of evolution. The basic form was unearthed in 1825 in the gypsum of Paris by Cuvier and named Paleotherium; discovered in 1841 in London, it was called Hyracotherium; and then in 1876, it was called America Eohippus. It disappeared around 10,000 BC while it remained elsewhere. About the size of a dog, it had 44 teeth, three fingers on the forelimbs, and four on the hind legs, all ending in pads. Over time, the multiplicity of discoveries has only led to a bushel of species, without altering the pattern.
The caballus form was not found in Africa until 1983, when it was simultaneously discovered in the suburbs of Algiers (Bagtache and Hadjouis 1983) and the region of Tiaret (Chaid-Saoudi 1984-1986). A widely accepted hypothesis was that of Le Couteulx de Canteleu (1880), that a domesticated horse was introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos around 1500 BC, and then the Dongola diffused to the south, and the Barb to the west. The discovery of Tassili paintings in the 1950s did not support this proposition, as they depicted a square model with a convex profile, a low-set tail, a model quite distinct from the Egyptian representations of the same era, which featured an elongated body, concave profile, and slender limbs. Linguistics further reinforces this observation by revealing different roots for the word “horse” in Egyptian and North African languages (Galand-Pernet 2006).
The identification of an African wild horse through fundamental modification of the data has led many hippatrists to consider it as the ancestor of the Barb horse and possibly even the Dongola breed; the absence of wild horses was indeed the sole and insurmountable obstacle to the concept of a localized Barb horse domestication.
Domestication of Horses
Numerous studies concerning the species Equus caballus have given rise to multiple hypotheses about the domestication site of the horse. Based on archaeological and more recent genetic data, there is speculation that horse domestication occurred in Eurasia. However, pinpointing the exact location of domestication remains a challenge. The archaeological evidence is sourced from three key aspects: skeletal modifications, geographical distribution, and the human-horse relationship. Genetic data, on the other hand, stem from observations of decreasing genetic diversity and increasing variability in coat forms, particularly more pronounced since the third millennium (Epstein 1971; Arne et al. 2009).
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Linguistic studies, such as Lehmann (1992), associate domestication with the eighth millennium, bringing the notion of a taming period preceding domestication closer to the eighth millennium (Lehmann 1992). Well-established indications of unique connections between humans and horses from the Pontic steppe date back to around 4500 BC (Anthony 2007), these dates are quite late in the history of animal domestication.
In contemporary times, the horse population is declining in all countries due to modernization and mechanization, which have greatly diminished its roles as a warhorse, means of transportation, and racing animal. Its current distribution across the African continent is uneven and hindered by diseases like trypanosomiasis (or nagana). Most equines today are concentrated in the northern and northeastern parts of Africa, where breeds like Barb and Dongola have been documented since the second millennium BC. The introduction of horses to the southern region is recent and closely tied to European presence there (Anthony 1996).
Domestication Hotbeds
Two predominant questions about the horse have been posed: Is Equus caballusa distinct species or a subspecies known as Equus ferus caballus? Additionally, where and when did horse domestication occur? While no consensus exists regarding the answer to the first question, the second question has generated diverse hypotheses that have replaced earlier propositions (San 1869; Franck 1875). If horse domestication happened in the cradle of civilization in Central Asia, then only one location is established, leading to a single ancestral origin for the horse that subsequently dispersed (Edwards 1973).
Consequently, horse domestication is attributed to the SrednyStog culture, dating back to 4000 BC, primarily due to a notably high concentration of horse bones, predominantly young males, and the discovery of objects that could be interpreted as horse bits in Dereivka, Ukraine (Anthony 1996). More ancient leg relics of domesticated horses are found in Khvalynsk, Russia, where horse remains accompany those of domestic cattle, sheep, and goats in graves dating from 4800 to 4400 BC (Anthony 2007). Other potential centers, such as the Pontic Steppes, Anatolia (Benecke 2006; Arbuckle 2012), Hungary-Romania, Portugal, and Spain (Digard 2002) were initially suggested, but subsequently discarded.
A particular point of interest emerges from the Botai culture that flourished around 3500 BC in Kazakhstan, particularly Krasni Yar and its environs (Outram et al. 2009). These sites contained corrals with horse dung, and pottery preserved traces of mare’s milk. Recent research reveals that the Botai horse is not the ancestor of today’s domesticated horse; rather, it gives rise to the Przewalski horse, a breed that was tamed rather than a true wild horse (Gaunitz et al. 2018).
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An African Cradle?
Traditionally, it has been widely accepted that the introduction of the horse into Africa in a domesticated state occurred during the eighteenth or fifteenth century BC, coinciding with the Hyksos invasion of Egypt. Subsequently, the horse spread southward, giving rise to breeds like the Dongola and the Barb, which in turn contributed to the ancestry of most other African horse breeds. However, a challenge to this narrative arose in the 1950s with the discovery of cave paintings depicting horses that differed from those associated with the Hyksos.
Gautier (1952) and other researchers examining this discrepancy in North Africa concluded that the absence of wild horses not only hindered, but definitively ruled out, the notion of a local origin (Gautier 1952). This obstacle raised questions about the unique bond between the Maghreb people and their horses.
In 1983, the identification of a wild horse species, Equus algericus, at two sites-one near Algiers (Bagtache and Hadjouis 1983) and the other close to Tiaret (Chaid-Saoudi 1984-1986)-along with its presence at various sites spanning from 40,000 to 8000 years ago (Bouzid 1991; Hadjouis 1993), revived the issue and brought forgotten discoveries back to the forefront (Thomas 1879; Reygasse 1922). The consideration of a local origin addresses the quandary posed by artistic representations and human behavior. This perspective aligns with the findings of Lira et al. (2010), who suggest the possibility of an independent domestication occurring in the Iberian Peninsula or North Africa because of specific haplotypes found on the peninsula (Lira et al. 2010). This view is also supported by paleontologist Chaid-Saoudi (2006), who noted a shared “geographical and paleontological area between Southern Europe and the Maghreb” (Chaid-Saoudi 1984-1986).
Jansen et al. (2002) observed a striking similarity in phenotype between Barb and Iberian horses (Jansen et al. 2002). Variants of Barb horses, identified by Ouragh (2006), are exclusively shared with populations having historical connections, distinguishing them from other breeds (Ouragh 2006). Oelke (undated) isolated a D1 genotype (Iberian / Barb), which diverged from the A6 mother genotype around 500,000 BC. These converging lines of evidence point toward a local domestication of the Barb horse, completely independent of other horse breeds.
Barb Horse
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Reasons for Domestication
It is widely accepted that domestication arises from material needs, but its development necessitates a favorable cultural and social context. In the case of horse domestication, it signifies a novel requirement that aligns with a process closely associated with the impacts of climate change. Numerous rationales have been put forward for this phenomenon. Chiefly, it revolves around the notion of a “food reserve,” encompassing both meat and milk. Archaeological evidence from the Botai culture highlights that horses constituted a significant portion of their meat consumption.
However, during the presumed period of domestication, the steppe’s grasses reached towering heights of up to two meters, making the hunting of numerous horses impractical. It is postulated that humans would have captured some of these horses to utilize them as mounts for protecting their herds. Thus, aside from providing sustenance, horses would have become invaluable hunting companions.
Religious considerations also emerge as a motivating factor, manifested through horse burials and the practice of hippophagia. These practices may be intricately tied to shamanic rituals aimed at assimilating the virtues of the horse. Digard (2004) highlights the allure of “fiery, fast, and powerful” game, alongside the innate human desire for ownership and possession (Digard 2004).
In Africa, the earliest evidence of domesticated horses comes from pastoral regions that underwent desertification. As herds required significantly larger territories to thrive, the question arises as to whether horse domestication was instrumental in safeguarding these herds. The prospect of domestication within this same region is not implausible. In the TassiliAjjers region, an even older, painting dating possibility to the eighth millennium depicts an arrangement of diminutive equines with small ears. However, representations from this era have primarily focused on humans, with only four animal species, including the giraffe, antelope, and mouflon, bearing indications of domestication or attempts at domestication. The quest remains ongoing to identify a site analogous to Dereivka or Krasni Yar that could definitively address this question.
Number of Horses in Africa
As of 2021, according to FAO data, there were 60,193,503 horses worldwide, distributed across the five continents (FAO DAD-IS 2021). In Africa, there were 7,412,943 (FAO DAD-IS 2021) with an annual increase rate of about 2% (see Chap. 1: African livestock production systems: The past, present and the projected future). The African continent accounts for 21.31% of the total global horse population, resulting in a lower ratio of 5.3 horses per 1000 people compared to the global ratio of 7.7 horses per 1000 people. South America boasts the highest horse population, while Oceania has the lowest.
Horse populations in African countries vary widely, influenced by factors such as economy, culture, and their diverse uses. Ethiopia has one of the continent’s largest horse populations, primarily used for transportation and agricultural labor. Chad and Mali also heavily rely on horses for farming and transportation needs. Senegal houses a significant number of horses utilized for various purposes, including agricultural work. Nigeria has a growing equine sector with a substantial horse population.
In North African countries, there is a higher concentration of horses due to longstanding equestrian traditions. Egypt and Sudan have a rich history of using horses, particularly in agriculture and transportation. In South Africa, a well-established equestrian industry supports a significant horse population, used for various purposes, including sports and leisure. On the other hand, some regions may have smaller horse populations, and these horses remain integral to their respective countries, playing significant roles in various aspects of daily life.
Equine Sector in Africa
At present, the African equine population is primarily characterized by two predominant groups: the Barb and the Dongola breeds. The north coastal area is characterized by the Arabian horse type. The western variation of it is called the Barb, and it is distinguished also by blood polymorphisms (Ouragh 2006). Most African breeds are derived from this Barb type and from Dongola varieties adapted to the north-east and central African environments. Emerging during the second millennium, these two populations have served as the foundation for numerous breeds or lineages. The Dongola practically disappeared in its homeland, and residual populations can be found only in Sudan and in the western lowland of Eritrea.
The total number of horse breeds in Africa is 134, distributed as follows:
- 10 breeds in Eastern Africa
- 5 breeds in Central Africa
- 20 breeds in Northern Africa
- 61 breeds in Southern Africa
- 38 breeds in Western Africa
The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has identified a total of 98 distinct breeds resulting from the geographic isolation of specific groups of horses. This adaptability is a key trait of horses, as they possess remarkable plasticity in their morphology, enabling them to readily conform to their environment. However, this adaptability encounters a subtle hindrance in the form of the tsetse fly, which poses a significant challenge. Covering over a third of the continent’s land area, the presence of the tsetse fly and its effects are influenced by fluctuating climate conditions (Devisse 1995).
Barb Horse
The Barb horse is notably distributed across North Africa (Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia), where it originated through the domestication of the wild form, Equus caballus algericus (Fig. 11.1).
Barb horses
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