Traditional African masks are a prominent feature of African cultural heritage. They are worn in ceremonies and rituals across West, Central, and Southern Africa, including events such as harvest celebrations, funerals, rites of passage, weddings, and coronations.
African Masks
Origins and History
The history, use, and symbolism of masks vary across national, ethnic, and cultural identities. Though the precise origins of masking traditions in precolonial Africa remain unknown, Raphael Chijioke Njoku theorized that masquerades developed among the Bantu people sometime before 3000-2500 BCE. Other theories are drawn from folklore and legends. Alex Asigbo argued that masquerade cults were developed by male elders as a form of social control.
Through the age-old practices of witchcraft and sorcery, women were thought to possess immense power over their male counterparts. "Masquerades therefore perform certain social control functions by enforcing discipline and upholding natural law."[6] With the exception of the Sande society, women in most African societies are not allowed to actively participate in masquerade activities.
Symbolism and Meaning
Masks may symbolize spirits of the dead, totem animals, and other supernatural forces. During a performance, the masked masquerader transforms into the spirit or entity represented by the mask.[7] The transformation of the mask wearer's identity is reinforced through song and dance.
From Rituals to Art: The Evolution of African Masks
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African Mask Symbolism
The importance of the spirit portrayed is often reflected by the mask's complexity and artistic quality. African masks usually emulate a human or animal face in an abstract way. The inherent lack of realism in African masks (and African art in general) is justified by the fact that most African cultures clearly distinguish the essence of a subject from its looks, the former, rather than the latter, being the actual subject of artistic representation.
Stylish elements in a mask's looks are codified by the tradition and may either identify a specific community or convey specific meanings. For example, both the Bwa and the Buna people of Burkina Faso have hawk masks, with the shape of the beak identifying a mask as either Bwa or Buna. Traits representing moral values are found in many cultures. Masks from the Senufo people of Ivory Coast, for example, have their eyes half closed, symbolizing a peaceful attitude, self-control, and patience. In Sierra Leone and elsewhere, small eyes and mouth represent humility, and a wide, protruding forehead represents wisdom.
Animal Symbolism
Animals are common subjects in African masks. Animal masks typically embody the spirit of animals, so that the mask-wearer becomes a medium to speak to animals themselves (e.g. to ask wild beasts to stay away from the village); in many cases, nevertheless, an animal is also (sometimes mainly) a symbol of specific virtues. Common animal subjects include the buffalo (usually representing strength, as in the Baoulé culture),[13] crocodile, hawk, hyena, warthog and antelope.
Antelopes have a fundamental role in many cultures of the Mali area (for example in Dogon and Bambara culture) as representatives of agriculture.[14] Dogon antelope masks are highly abstract, with a general rectangular shape and many horns (a representation of abundant harvest. A common variation on the animal-mask theme is the composition of several distinct animal traits in a single mask, sometimes along with human traits.
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Merging distinct animal traits together is sometimes a means to represent unusual, exceptional virtue or high status. Another common subject of African masks is a woman's face, usually based on a specific culture's ideal of feminine beauty. Female masks of the Punu people of Gabon, for example, have long curved eyelashes, almond-shaped eyes, thin chin, and traditional ornaments on their cheeks, as all these are considered good-looking traits.[17] Feminine masks of the Baga people have ornamental scars and breasts. One of the well-known representations of female beauty is the Idia mask of Benin. It is believed to have been commissioned by King Esigie of Benin in memory of his mother.
Okuyi Society Female Spirit Mask
Ancestor Masks
As the veneration of defunct ancestors is a fundamental element of most African traditional cultures, it is not surprising that the dead is also a common subject for masks. Masks referring to dead ancestors are most often shaped after a human skull. A special class of ancestor masks are those related to notable, historical or legendary people.
Materials and Construction
The most commonly used material for masks is wood, although a wide variety of other elements can be used, including light stone such as steatite, metals such as copper or bronze, different types of fabric, pottery, and more. Some masks are painted (for example using ochre or other natural colorants). A wide array of ornamental items can be applied to the mask surface; examples include animal hair, horns, or teeth, sea shells, seeds, straw, egg shell, and feathers.
The general structure of a mask varies depending on the way it is intended to be worn. The most common type applies to the wearer's face, like most Western (e.g., carnival) masks. Others are worn like hats on the top of the wearer's head; examples include those of the Ekhoi people of Nigeria and Bwa people of Burkina Faso, as well as the famous chiwara masks of the Bambara people.[13] Some masks (for example those of the Sande society of Liberia and the Mende people of Sierra Leone, that are made from hollow tree stumps) are worn like helmets covering both the head and face.
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Ngil mask from Gabon or Cameroon
Commercialization and Modern Context
As African masks are largely appropriated by Europeans, they are widely commercialized and sold in most tourist-oriented markets and shops in Africa (as well as "ethnic" shops in the Western world). As a consequence, the traditional art of mask-making has gradually ceased to be a privileged, status-related practice, and mass production of masks has become widespread.
While, in most cases, commercial masks are (more or less faithful) reproductions of traditional masks, this connection is weakening over time, as the logics of mass-production make it harder to identify the actual geographical and cultural origins of the masks found in such venues as curio shops and tourist markets.
Masks of the Dogon People
Some groups like the Dogon people of Mali possess several masks, each with its own unique function. The Dogon are governed by three main religious orders: the Awa (cult of the dead), Bini (cult of the ancestors), and Lebe (cult of nature).
N'tomo Masks of the Bamana People
The members of the ntomo society make their own masks, which allows for many variations in design, but they all have the same purpose of being beautiful. Often cowrie shells and small red or orange airbus seeds, are used to enhance the design of a mask. Other societies’ masks can represent animals, but ntomo masks are anthropomorphic, which means they have human aspects to their form. The annual ntomo initiation ceremony, when these masks are used, takes place during harvest time.
The ntomo masks can also be seen in dances during other times of the year, such as during the dry season. The masks are worn while dancing, and are meant to look beautiful on a talented dancer. Dancers are dressed either in white or ochre, an earthy pigment of reddish coloring.
After circumcision and graduation from the ntomo society, the male’s next step in life depends on his own personal background and family history.
Scarification and Masks
Ngima Thogo is a self-taught, Kenyan digital artist who lives and works in Nairobi, the capital. He draws inspiration from African tribal masks and skin scarification used by various cultures as forms of identity.
From Rituals to Art: The Evolution of African Masks
Facial Scarification
Example of facial scarification in an African person, c. 'Slayer' scars are given to huntsmen based on their accolades in battle, the hunt, or societal basis. The motifs behind these markings are meant to symbolize a hunter's constant strides towards reincarnation.
