Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, encompassing the island of Madagascar and several smaller peripheral islands. Situated off the southeastern coast of Africa, it is the fourth largest island in the world.
Geographic Isolation and Biodiversity
Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar split from Africa during the Early Jurassic period, around 180 million years ago, and separated from the Indian subcontinent approximately 90 million years ago. This isolation allowed native plants and animals to evolve in relative seclusion; as a result, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot and one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, with over 90% of its wildlife being endemic.
Lush rainforests, dry deserts, and grassy plains cover the island, with coral reef and mangrove forests stretching along its coastlines. The island has a subtropical to tropical maritime climate.
Madagascar’s most famous animal species, lemurs, live only in Madagascar and can be found in almost every habitat on the island. Silky sifakas, a type of lemur and one of the rarest mammals on Earth, can be found in the rainforests, along with giant leaf-tailed geckos and nocturnal aye-ayes. The species thought to be most representative of the island (other than lemurs) is the baobab tree, the national tree of Madagascar.
Deforestation and poaching, or the illegal killing of animals, threaten much of Madagascar’s habitat and wildlife. Many trees are harvested for firewood, and the loss of forest reduces where Madagascar’s animals can live. And since many of the island’s animals are so rare, they’re highly prized by poachers.
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Early Settlement and History
Madagascar was first permanently settled during or before the mid-first millennium AD (roughly AD 500 to AD 700) by Austronesian peoples, presumably arriving on outrigger canoes from present-day Indonesia. These were joined around the ninth century AD by Bantu groups crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life.
Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from South Borneo, Indonesia possibly throughout the period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of Iceland and New Zealand.
Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation. The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the Vazimba.
The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by the 10th century. They also contributed to the island's mixed ancestry, sending migrations via the Comoros and founding coastal colonies mainly for trade.
From about 1680s to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Pirates established their own trading posts on the sites of colonies abandoned by Europeans decades earlier. Moreover, the legend spread that the pirates had built a pirate kingdom in Madagascar.
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Kingdom of Madagascar and French Colonization
Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles.
Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following almost a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787-1810).
His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810-28), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance.
Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828-61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar.
Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War. At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs.
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In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases.
The monarchy was ended in 1897 by the annexation by France, from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960.
Colonial Rule and Independence Movement
Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops. Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today.
Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum. Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached.
Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM).
The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence.
The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community.
Republics and Governance
Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as a constitutional democracy since 1992. Following a political crisis and military coup in 2009, Madagascar underwent a protracted transition towards its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014.
The First Republic (1960-72), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity.
Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993-96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992-2010). The new Madagascar constitution established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade.
The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration.
Language, Religion, and Culture
Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. Christianity is the country's predominant religion, with a significant minority still practising traditional faiths.
Most Malagasy live in rural areas, where their daily life revolves around agriculture. Music is an important part of Malagasy culture. Villages often hold parties in which locals can dance or play music with things like the valiha, a guitar-like instrument considered to be the national instrument of Madagascar.
The island’s cuisine has been influenced by the countries surrounding it, with Southeast Asian and African ingredients found in most dishes. The most commonly served Malagasy meal is a base of rice, called vary, served with one other ingredient of the diner’s choice, called laoka. The laoka can be a vegetable or meat item, and is typically covered in sauce flavored with ginger, onion, garlic, and spices or herbs.
Economy and Development
Madagascar is classified as a least developed country by the UN. Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of its development strategy. Despite substantial economic growth since the early 2000s, income disparities have widened, and quality of life remains low for the majority of the population.
Eighty percent of Madagascar’s economy is fueled by agricultural industries, including forestry and fishing. Among the island’s most frequently sold agricultural products are coffee, vanilla, and sugarcane.
Basic Facts about Madagascar
| Official Name | Republic of Madagascar |
|---|---|
| Capital | Antananarivo |
| Official Languages | Malagasy, French |
| Predominant Religion | Christianity |
| Government | Constitutional Democracy |
| Currency | Malagasy Ariary (MGA) |
Map of Madagascar
