Education in Egypt boasts a rich history, stretching back to ancient times. The ancient Egyptians, known for inventing writing, used hieroglyphs to record their language and established the "Bar Ankh" (House of Life), recognized as the first school and library in human history. The city of Alexandria housed a university dating back to 300 BCE, which became a hub for notable scholars such as Archimedes and Euclid.
During the Fatimid period, two key institutions emerged in Cairo that would shape the intellectual trajectory of Islamic education: al-Azhar and the Dar al-Ilm. Al-Azhar was founded in 970-972 CE under the direction of Jawhar al-Siqilli following the Fatimid conquest of Egypt, initially serving as a congregational mosque before developing into a leading center for the study of Shi‘a jurisprudence and theology. While it later became a Sunni institution, al-Azhar’s early educational character was informal, revolving around the presence of scholars who attracted students through their reputation and mastery.
In contrast, the Dar al-Ilm (also known as the House of Knowledge), established in 1005 CE by Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, was conceived as a state-sponsored center of higher learning and public access. It combined the functions of a library, academy, and scholarly forum, offering instruction in diverse fields such as astronomy, medicine, grammar, and theology. The institution was notable for its accessibility, salaried teachers, and vast manuscript collection, reportedly exceeding 100,000 volumes, including 18,000 manuscripts on early civilizations.
Education during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods (c. 12th-16th centuries) remained characterized by a decentralized and socially embedded structure of knowledge transmission. Instruction was primarily informal and rooted in interpersonal relationships between scholars and students. The prevailing method of certification was the ijāza, a license granted by a scholar authorizing a student to teach or transmit specific texts. Teaching did not take place within a formal institutional framework but occurred in a variety of locations, including mosques, private residences, and public spaces such as markets and courtyards.
The French expedition to Egypt in 1798 marked a turning point in Egypt’s modern intellectual history. Napoleon Bonaparte founded the Institut d'Égypte in Cairo on 22 August 1798, organizing it into four sections: mathematics, natural sciences, political economy, and literature and arts. After the French withdrawal, Egypt entered a phase of decline until Muhammad Ali's reign (1805-1848), which revived learning through educational reform and cultural investment.
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Modern education in Egypt was formally introduced under Muhammad Ali, who sought to modernize the country’s educational system based on the French model. His efforts created a dual system: traditional religious schools (mansouri) and modern secular institutions known as madrasas. With the British occupation of Egypt in 1882, education suffered from systematic neglect. British authorities prioritized countering French influence and suppressing Egyptian nationalist movements advocating educational reform. Consequently, efforts to expand access to education were dismantled, restricting modern schooling to the elite and foreigners.
Following the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser introduced sweeping reforms, including free public education for all Egyptian children. Since the 1990s, Egypt has adhered to international conventions and implemented education reforms aimed at improving outcomes through the adoption of "best practices" and "knowledge-sharing" models. While significant progress has been made in expanding access to education, challenges persist in enhancing quality.
Egypt has a very extensive higher education system and it comprises both public and private institutions. The Ministry of Higher Education supervises the tertiary level of education. The current system comprises a diverse range of institutions, including 27 public universities, 51 public non-university institutions, 27 private universities, and 89 private higher institutions.
Education in Egypt is compulsory for nine academic years, from ages 4 to 14, and the constitution guarantees free education at all levels in government-run schools and public universities. There are no formal admissions requirements for enrollment in public elementary schools. Although public education is technically free, these schools still impose small fees. These fees can range from 210 to 520 Egyptian pounds (approximately US$5-10) per year, though they are waived for some low-income students.
The public education system in Egypt is structured into three levels. The basic education stage serves children aged 4 to 14 and includes kindergarten for two years, followed by primary school for six years and preparatory school for three years. This phase is succeeded by a three-year secondary school stage (classified as ISCED Level 3) for students aged 15 to 17, after which tertiary education commences. Compulsory education covers nine academic years between the ages of 4 and 14, and all levels are provided free of charge in government-run institutions.
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The Ministry of Education is responsible for policy decisions in the education sector, supported by three specialized centers: the National Center of Curriculum Development, the National Center for Education Research, and the National Center for Examinations and Educational Evaluation. In addition, a formal teacher qualification track is in place for both basic and secondary education. Prospective teachers are required to complete four years of pre-service courses at a university before entering the profession.
Following the successful completion of basic education and its corresponding national examination, students progress to secondary education, which is divided into two distinct tracks, general and technical. The general track lasts three years, while technical programs extend between three and five years, covering disciplines such as industrial, agricultural, and commercial studies. More recently, the government has introduced Applied Technology Schools to further enhance technical and vocational education and training (TVET).
Another system operating concurrently with the public educational system is the Al-Azhar system. This system comprises a six-year primary stage, a three-year preparatory stage, and a three-year secondary stage. The Al-Azhar educational system is supervised by the Supreme Council of the Al-Azhar Institution. Although the Azhar Institution is nominally independent of the Ministry of Education, it ultimately falls under the supervision of the Egyptian Prime Minister. Al-Azhar schools, designated as "Institutes," encompass primary, preparatory, and secondary phases.
As more people get a better education, Egypt’s literacy rate has improved. Between 2018-2021, the literacy rate was highest in the year 2018 and lowest in the year 2021. The literacy rate reached 87.18% in 2021. Between 2018 to 2021, the literacy rate of Egypt decreased by 1.5%. Literacy is defined by the percentage of the literate population of a particular age group. The literacy rate for adults is 15 years or older, the literacy rate for young people is 15 to 24 years, and the literacy rate for elderly people is 65 years or older. It is usually measured as the ability to understand short and simple statements about everyday life.
Literacy Rate demonstrates the overall performance of primary education and literacy programs, instills basic literacy skills in the population, applies these skills to everyday life, and enables them to learn written language and continue to communicate. 95% of the world's illiterate people live in developing countries, and about 70% are women. Illiteracy is one of the most serious problems that countries of the world suffer from, especially developing countries, which cannot be ignored due to its negative effects on the social, economic, political and environmental levels.
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Illiteracy is one of the oldest social phenomena in Egyptian society, and one of the most complex problems due to the multiplicity and interweaving of its dimensions, and the most severe impact on the low results of development programs and plans in general.
These efforts have eliminated the illiteracy of about 5 million people since 2014, according to the president of the General Authority for adult education. Despite the efforts made by the state, the number of illiterate people in Egypt is still large, which requires more efforts.
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a strong influence on the Egyptian educational system and the rise of distance education.
Literacy Rate in Egypt (2018-2021)
The following table shows the literacy rate in Egypt between 2018 and 2021:
| Year | Literacy Rate (%) |
|---|---|
| 2018 | 88.68% |
| 2019 | 87.92% |
| 2020 | 87.31% |
| 2021 | 87.18% |
Egypt acknowledges the challenges confronting the higher education sector. Key issues include the need to improve governance and efficiency, increase institutional autonomy, enhance the quality and relevance of academic programs, and maintain current levels of access. In response, the Ministry of Higher Education has taken a leading role in reform initiatives.
Factors contributing to illiteracy:
- Increased rates of violence and crime: all statistics indicate a close relationship between the increase in the number of illiterates and the high frequency of violence and crime in society.
Initiatives to Combat Illiteracy:
- Launching the ” literacy of one million citizens ” campaign in coordination with the General Authority for adult education and Al-Azhar Al-Sharif under the umbrella of ” a decent life."
The History of Education and Learning
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