Ikenga is a masculine divinity of success and achievement among the Igbo-a people of southeastern Nigeria-as well as among their neighbors, the Bakuba, Edo, and Igala. Each man has his own Ikenga, a spirit concerned with the success one achieves by his or her own efforts.
One of the largest ethnic groups in Nigeria, the Igbo live in the southeastern and southcentral regions of the country as well as in equatorial Guinea. Traditionally they have lived in small and often isolated settlements scattered through the forest. On both sides of the Niger, but mainly to the east, live the Igbo.
Speakers: Dr. Peri Klemm and Dr. Chinua Achebe’s celebrated novel Arrow of God examines the cultural complexities of the Igbo peoples in colonial Nigeria. Set in the early decades of the twentieth century, the book intimately addresses many nuances of Igbo beliefs, customs, and rituals, particularly in the context of British colonial rule, which was rapidly expanding in Nigeria in that era.
Far from the stereotypical notion of a monolithic “tribe” fostered by colonialism, the Igbo have great internal diversity. There are significant differences in visual culture, rituals, and customs across Igboland, and the tradition of Ikenga is no exception.
The lack of overall centralization among the Igbo-speaking peoples has been conducive to the development of a great variety of art styles and cultural practices. In Igbo society there is strong social pressure toward individual distinction, and men can move upward through successive grades by demonstrating their achievements and their generosity.
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One of the traditional representations of this was the Ikenga, that part of oneself enabling personal achievement, with cult figures representing the attributes of distinction.
The titling tradition testifies to the strong Igbo belief in egalitarianism and individual success, and even the divine in Igbo cosmology often aids the material and spiritual achievements of individuals. Organized into acephalous (without centralized leadership) polities, each cluster of Igbo villages was traditionally ruled by a council of elders. Men-and often women-of age, wealth, and status are still honored with a variety of titles and leadership positions.
When an Igbo male comes of age, he may ritually be offered an Ikenga, which becomes not only his proud possession to be preserved and honored for the rest of his life, but is also an integral part of his identity as a unique individual. Carved out of wood and anywhere from a few inches to about two feet tall, an Ikenga symbolizes its owner’s right hand. An Igbo man’s right hand is the hand of accomplishment because it is the primary agent of action, confronting and overcoming life’s challenges.
Signifying the owner’s potential for success and his control of his own fate, the object embodies his chi, his ndichie (ancestors), and ike (power). In short, the man’s Ikenga becomes the essence of his individuality. Yet at the same time, it also serves as an unequivocal marker of his commitment to his society.
Forms and Symbolism of Ikenga
Ikenga may take three forms in artwork:
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- A small, abstract cylinder with horns, chipped from hardwood.
- A humanoid figure with an elaborate, geometric headdress.
- A smoothly carved, nude, elderly man with two curved or coiled ram’s horns, standing between six inches (15.25 cm) to six feet (1.83 m) tall, carved from soft wood.
Ikenga of this type are often bedecked in expensive accoutrements, such as the staff of a nobleman and intricate body designs. These elements all reference Ikenga’s concern for personal prestige and the achievement of goals. The staff, for instance, is a sign of high station. Likewise, the horns suggest a strong and daring nature that is able to propel the individual to greater heights. Additionally, they refer to two palms turned toward the sky, an Igbo symbol of honest dealings.
The fact that Ikenga is generally shown as an aged man acknowledges the social prestige of titled elders (Ozo), those people able to achieve ancestral status after death. Ikenga figures usually have alert expressions and stand in a guardian stance to emphasize that they must be awake to help their owners.
Figurative Ikenga statues may show the divinity standing or seated, with a pair of implements in his two hands. The left hand generally holds some symbol of triumph, such as the severed head of a foe, a bag of money, or an elephant tusk, while the right holds the tool used to secure that victory, such as a machete or ceremonial sword (abana). More recently carved Ikenga figures may wield guns.
Consider the ones from the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, for example. An Ikenga is most commonly a seated male. The figures have two curled horns, and carry a knife or machete in his right hand (the hand of action) and a human head in his left hand (the hand bearing the outcome of the right hand’s action). The facial expression is aggressive, exposing sharp teeth.
Rams are known for their strength and tenacity; they go into battle head first, and once two of them lock horns, they do not back down until one is defeated. The ram horns, therefore, represent the determination needed to face life’s hurdles. The knife, with its wedged blade, stands for the aggression with which challenges are met.
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Reminiscent of that ancient ritual, the human head in the left hand of the figure is a reminder of the prize of one’s actions and of one’s mastery over his opponents. At some point in the past, some of the Igbo groups practiced headhunting; heads of dead enemies were preserved in order to absorb their strength.
These figures often have scarification patterns on their foreheads that refer to membership in the Ozo society. In generations past, the way an Ikenga was decorated depended in part on the status of its owner; one with Ozo scarification marks, for instance, could only be owned by a member of the Ozo society. Likewise, an Ikenga holding a cutlass and severed head may have belonged to a warrior.
Yet this is far from certain-often Ikenga were carved to reflect achievements the owner hoped to achieve, not only those he had already accomplished. Likewise, the items in the Ikenga’s hands could be interpreted indirectly, too, such that a machete and head might merely refer to the owner’s desire for bravery and success in his endeavors.
Occasionally, for example, lack of success in life may lead an owner to reject his existing Ikenga for a new one. A newly titled man may choose to replace his older Ikenga with a newer one that sits on a stool meant for a title-holder; a titled man’s staff may replace the knife in the right hand, while the left hand may carry an elephant tusk instead of the usual human head.
What is more, some of the carvings are abstract, with no distinct anthropomorphic features. These are a specific type of Ikenga known as Ikenga mmuo, representing the ephemeral world of chi, while the type resembling a human, called Ikenga madu, signifies the physical existence of an owner. Also, while most Ikengas have curled horns, some have straight ones, based on an owner’s individual identity.
It is likely that a typical Ikenga would appear exotic and mysterious to anyone unfamiliar with Igbo culture. It is therefore not difficult to understand that when Christian missionaries first arrived in Igboland to proselytize among its people, this wooden figure, with its combination of human and animal features and its aggressive expression, appeared to them entirely alien to Christian values. Yet when the Western world learned to value artifacts from Africa as art in the early decades of the twentieth century, their exoticism and mystery were precisely some of the properties that made the objects attractive collectibles.
Ikenga, Igbo peoples, Nigeria, wood (Penn Museum, Philadelphia)
Male figure, Ikenga (Igbo Peoples)
Ikenga in Igbo Society
In some Igbo communities, for instance, owners of Ikenga participate in an annual Ikenga festival, where Ikengas are honored with the belief that if appeased, they would bring success and fortune to their owners. Furthermore, while the attachment of each Ikenga to a specific individual may account for the variety in its details and the degree of its embellishment, differences can also be attributed to nuances of local beliefs and practices, or other circumstances.
The fateful interaction between two characters in the novel, Akukalia and Ebo, is one such instance of a close look at a crucial aspect of Igbo belief. Following a serious altercation, Akukalia insults Ebo by breaking Ebo’s Ikenga. Devastated by the loss, Ebo promptly grabs his gun and kills Akukalia.
Despite Ebo’s grave offense, the village elders cannot punish him, because under no circumstances does anyone in Igbo society have the right to defame, much less destroy, a man’s Ikenga.
Other Art Forms of the Igbo and Neighboring Peoples
Beyond the Ikenga, the Igbo and their neighbors have a rich artistic heritage. Here's a glimpse into some of these art forms:
- Igbo Ukwu: The earliest-known sculpture from Igboland is from the village of Igbo Ukwu, where the grave of a man of distinction and a ritual store dating from the 9th century contained both chased copper objects and elaborate castings of leaded bronze. The earliest artistic castings from sub-Saharan Africa, these pieces consist of ritual vessels and other ceremonial objects with intricate surface decoration, often small animals and insects represented in the round.
- Masks: A very great variety of masks are found among the Igbo. The masks, of wood or fabric, are employed in a variety of dramas: social satires, sacred rituals (for ancestors and invocation of the gods), initiation, second burials, and public festivals-which now include Christmas and Independence Day.
- Ijele Masks: Most impressive are the ijele masks of the Northern Igbo, which are 12 feet (366 cm) high. Consisting of platforms 6 feet (183 cm) in diameter, supporting tiers of figures made of colored cloth and representing everyday scenes, they honor the dead to ensure the continuity and well-being of the community.
- Mbari Shrines: Shrines called mbari, which contain elaborate tableaux of painted unfired earth, are made in honor of the earth spirit in villages near Owerri in southern Nigeria.
- Ekpu Figures: Among the oldest sculptures of tropical Africa are several hundred ancestor figures, called ekpu, of the Ibibio coastal trade center of Oron, some of which are thought to date from the late 18th century.
- Ekoi Masks: The Ekoi peoples are best known for their large skin-covered masks, which have two or even three faces, and for their smaller headpieces, which represent a head or an entire figure.
ceremonial objectLeaded bronze ceremonial object, thought to have been the head of a staff, decorated with colored beads of glass and stone, 9th century, from Igbo Ukwu, Nigeria.
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