Nigeria, like many African countries, has a rich history marked by various conflicts that have often exacerbated divisions along religious, ethnic, and regional lines. Understanding gender roles in Nigeria requires examining pre-colonial traditions, the impact of colonialism, and the roles men and women play during conflicts.
Map of Ethnic Groups in Nigeria
Conceptual Clarifications
- Gender: Socialization of men and women as constructed by the responsibilities assigned to them at different stages.
- Conflict: Disagreements that can erupt in violence or create confusion.
- Information: Activities and actions made available to people to create awareness or understanding during conflicts.
- Media: Social institution disseminating information through pictures, sound, and print reports.
Methodology and Theoretical Orientation
Qualitative methods, including focus group discussions with women affected by conflicts and journalists, are used to gather data. The Symbolic Interactionist Theory, based on the ideas of George H. Mead, Charles H. Cooley, and W. I. Thomas, provides a theoretical foundation. This theory emphasizes that human life is lived in the symbolic domain, where symbols provide the means by which reality is constructed.
The Symbolic Interactionist Theory examines gender stratification on a day-to-day level and how gender roles are internalized. Gender inequality is not a product of biological inheritance but is socio-culturally constructed using symbols and meanings. To change existing gender differentiation, there is a need to change the symbols and meanings attached to them.
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Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are:
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- To examine the roles women play during conflicts.
- To examine how the media reinforces gender roles in conflict reports.
- To determine the role the media plays in conflict de-escalation.
Gender Roles in Conflict Situations
When media reports consider gender, it often narrows the focus to women and girls, overlooking the roles of men and boys. In Nigeria, women engage in petty trading more than men, using their proceeds to support men during conflicts. This specialized arrangement makes pre-conflict escalation gendered.
Women also play a key role in preserving order and normalcy amidst chaos. They struggle to protect their families' health and safety, often becoming a driving force for peace. Women cook for the men who go to battle, and some argue that most wars have been fought with the acquiescence and support of women.
In extreme cases, women are used as "charm," stripping naked before an "enemy." Traditional paraphernalia with cultural connotations and mystical powers are also used by women to stop unacceptable behavior of men.
The different experiences of women during conflict, whether as fighters, community leaders, or social organizers, are often not considered newsworthy. The post-conflict period has seen women taking on non-traditional roles, such as managing financial resources and renovating houses, marking a significant shift in gender roles.
Queen Amina of Zazzau
Queen Amina of Zazzau
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It is noteworthy that in Nigeria, the likes of Queen Amina of Zazzau, Princess Inikpi of Idah and Princess Emotan of Benin kingdom all contributed to conflicts at different levels in the history of Nigerian conflicts and wars.
Role of the Media in Conflict Escalation
Conflict escalation is often characterized by rumors, and gender identity roles can switch as more women become widows in the post-conflict era, assuming responsibilities traditionally held by men. This is hardly captured by the media.
Despite conflicts affecting whole populations, women are often invisible in reports, seen crying in the background and talked about rather than listened to. Men are often asked to explain and interpret the conflict in various roles, while women are rarely asked about their opinions.
The impact of conflict on women and their role in peace building is rarely given prominent coverage. The Nigerian media should realize that the exclusion of women implies the exclusion of a majority of Nigerians. Reporting on women continues to be simplistic, especially in conflict situations.
Changes in gender roles can be spontaneous, and the media should sense and respond to these changes quickly. Media jingles aimed at de-escalating conflict and peace building reinforce gender roles, highlighting that gender, as opposed to sex role differentiation, is apparent in Nigerian social relations.
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Sometimes, women are used in warmongering. The ultimate case of misogyny propagated by the media occurred prior to the Rwandan genocide, when hate campaigns against a particular ethnic group often focused on women.
While the focus on victimized girls helps garner international support, it overlooks the role that women and girls play in insurgency operations and ideology. Women are playing an increasingly important role in the tactical operations of terrorist groups.
The media can play a significant role in alleviating the plight of internally displaced women by exposing images of victims of civil wars and violence. Whenever the term "Gender" is mentioned, it is often attributed to women, who are often in a disadvantaged position. This paper attempts to look into gender and understand existing gender roles, especially for females, and how they contribute to development.
Gender Issues and Development in Africa
Cultural differences in gender roles emphasize how gender norms are socially constructed. Gender norms assign specific roles, responsibilities, tasks, and privileges to both females and males. This becomes problematic if such allocations favor one group over the other.
Over the years, male superiority has been assumed, while women are seen as weak and subordinate. Initiatives such as the Family Support Program and the Federal Ministry of Women Affairs were aimed at intensifying the role of women in fostering societal development. However, these programs have been criticized for failing to address the real needs of women.
Despite positive development trends, women in Sub-Saharan Africa are still disadvantaged, with hindrances limiting their political, economic, civil, and legal rights. Gender role differences worldwide seem to be a natural phenomenon, but the gaps in opportunities have become worrisome.
International programs and conferences now focus on incorporating women into the development agenda based on equality. However, hostile gender relations, such as unequal access to power and resources, remain on the increase.
Policies on gender, like affirmative action in Nigeria, are structured with the idea of gender equity and women empowerment, lending voices to women's support and increasing opportunities for their health, education, and employment.
Even though the patriarchy system in many African societies is highly pronounced, African women display enormous power that binds the community. Understanding gender roles from the traditional African perspective is imperative for Africa's sustainable development.
Feminism and Gender Equality
Feminists and advocates have continued the movement for gender equality to end gender discrimination. However, new challenges are emerging, such as women failing to perform their responsibilities effectively.
The consequence of this is that women's socialization role in passing societal values to children is critically insufficient, leading to the destruction of societal values evident in many cultures. Cultural and moral African values are commonly instilled from home, but the institution of the family is weakening.
The Concept of Gender
Gender connotes the culturally and socially constructed roles of men and women in society. It is a social construct learned through socialization. Several social attributes and privileges connected with being male and female are also issues relating to gender.
Gender can be seen as a social construct, a socialization product where persons learn societal expectations as either males or females. The biological makeup defines each individual's capabilities and the roles best played by each sex.
Development and Gender Equality
Without objective gender equality, no society can develop. Achieving gender equality is a crucial part of the development plan that aims to enable individuals to reduce hardship and improve living conditions.
The importance of women's role in national and international development is gaining global attention. Equality is not necessarily when men and women begin to play the same role but when the functions of each gender are well recognized and appreciated.
Axel Honneth and the Theory of Recognition
Axel Honneth emphasized understanding identity claims made by persons and social groups. People's involvement in political resistance is due to their violent experience to spontaneously assumed conception of justice. Social conflict and social action can develop due to individuals' and groups' lack of recognition.
Feminism and a call for gender equality arose due to women not getting the respect they deserve and not being recognized for their family or home roles. Every role is essential in the system and must be recognized because a shortage will retard society's smooth running.
Three forms of recognition are required by people: love, respect, and esteem. For women to attain complete independence, play their roles even in families, and for there to be true gender equality, love, respect, and esteem must be accorded them.
Pre-Colonial Nigeria and Gender Roles
The position of women in pre-colonial Nigeria differed in the vast number of ethnic groups. A woman's position varied according to the kinship structure and role within the economic structure of the society. Common factors included domestically oriented jobs and economic activities reserved for women.
Women in pre-colonial societies held a complementary position to men, although patrilineal and patriarchal kinship structures predominated. The kinship group expected women to give birth to sons to ensure the future of the group. A young wife's position improved as she grew older, bore children, and earned approval from older members.
Yoruba society offered the greatest opportunities for women to participate in economic activities such as manufacturing and trade. Women believed that providing resources met their responsibility as women and citizens. Like the family and economic structures, the religions of many Nigerian tribal societies conceived the position of women as complementary to that of men.
However, the fact remains that the societies of Pre-Colonial Nigeria believed men superior to women and, to some extent, in control of women. In societies that did not confine women to the household, women held important roles in agriculture, manufacturing, and trade. Women held a basically complementary, rather than subordinate, position to men in indigenous pre-colonial Nigerian society.
Despite the lack of emphasis placed on gender by Nigeria's indigenous societies, the state and its bureaucracy tried to dictate the lifestyles of women, endorsing the domesticity of women and the unwaged services they provided for the family. Much of the legislation concerning women, therefore, attempted to control them, their sexuality, and fertility, further defining their subordination.
Colonial Era and Contemporary Era
Nigerian women have come a long way from the precolonial, to the colonial era to the contemporary era. There are great stories that seem not to have been told about Nigerian women. The inability to adequately capture the stories may have been due to inefficient communication and documentation.
In spite of the great role that women play in this clime, it seems that little or no effort is made to portray, promote and document their role. The media are a powerful tool that can be used to assist Nigerian women in asserting their voices so that their stories can be told and documented in an emulative manner.
The traditional Nigerian indigenous community believes that the womanâs role is predominantly in the home where she is expected to act as a wife, mother and housekeeper. This implies that she is to be catered for by her husband whom she is solely dependent on. According to Adamu [1] the cultural orientation by which a woman is seen as dependent on her husband is what creates the enabling environment for her subordination and restriction in pursing education. In Nigeria presently, women are beginning to break out of such stereotypes.
Nigerian women have continued to evolve since the precolonial era, their continuous portrayal as the helpless, oppressed and marginalized lot has led to little recognition being given to them in history. According to Okereke Nigerian history has not been gender sensitive in their analysis of the contributions of females to development and this invisibility affects the country in terms of development.
The irony here is that Nigerian women have always played a significant role in social and economic activities in the society. They have engaged in activities such as food processing, pottery making, and mat weaving and cooking. Land was communally owned and women were given access to land through their husbands or where applicable their parents. However, the patrilineal nature of the Nigerian culture emphasized the role of the man as the head of the family.
During this period, women in most Nigerian societies were considered as free adults under customary law. This however does not mean that there were no limitations as they were subordinated to male authority though they had independence in terms of income. Politically they were integrated into their communities and they played complementary functions. The political influence of women in the pre-colonial era was documented by Odah and Awe [2,3].
Colonialism did not help in the empowerment of women because they seemed to be relegated to the background during this period. According to Boserup colonialism used gender inequality as means of perpetuating the subordination, subjugation and exploitation of women. Colonialism set the tone for creating an inferiority complex for women. This is why Okunna [5] argues that the Nigerian woman is characterized by low self-esteem because the society does not see her as important but inferior to her male counterpart.
The colonization of the West African region that lies across the Niger River took place between the mid 19th century and 1960 when Nigeria became recognized as an independent nation.[1] This systemic invasion introduced new social, economic, and political structures that significantly altered Indigenous notions of gender fluidity and gender roles. The imposition of Western ideologies in someway or the other may have influenced African socio-cultural practices invariably leading to a shift in power relations, societal expectations, gender-roles expressions or even identities.
European colonial powers introduced legal frameworks that often reinforced patriarchal structures and diminished the recognition of Indigenous practices that embraced gender diversity. The imposition of Western legal systems had lasting consequences, influencing inheritance laws, property rights, and marital practices. This not only marginalized women within the legal framework but also eroded the traditional roles of certain societies where women held significant economic and political power. The juxtaposition of colonial legal norms with Indigenous customs created tension and reshaped the social fabric, contributing to the evolving landscape of gender roles and fluidity in Nigerian cultures.
This impact of colonial legal systems and educational structures interacted with the diverse cultural landscapes of Nigeria, affecting communities in distinct ways. The recognition of male daughters and the acceptance of female husbands reflected the nuanced understanding of gender and identity within the cultural and spiritual context of pre-colonial Igbo communities.
One important cultural inclination that became silent as a result of colonial invasion is the practice of homosexuality among the Yoruba people.
In post-colonial Nigeria, womenâs roles in national development have increased, particularly in agriculture and the public service. However, gender inequality persists in the legal system and political representation. Despite womenâs significant support for political parties, they are not well-represented in appointments and policy-making.
Negative media portrayals and cultural practices continue to challenge Nigerian women. They are often objectified as sex symbols rather than respected professionals. The media tends to downplay womenâs success stories and focus on stereotypes, reinforcing gender disparity rather than correcting it.
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