The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed the "Scramble for Africa," a period of intense invasion, conquest, and colonization by Western European powers. This era, driven by the Second Industrial Revolution, saw a dramatic shift in European control over the continent. In 1870, only 10% of Africa was formally under European control, but by the early 20th century, this number had drastically increased.
Initially, European businessmen established small trading posts along the African coasts, primarily trading with locals and seldom venturing inland. As late as the 1870s, Europeans controlled approximately 10% of the African continent, with territories mainly near the coasts. Key holdings included Angola and Mozambique (Portugal), the Cape Colony (United Kingdom), and Algeria (France).
Technological advancements played a crucial role in facilitating European expansion. Industrialization brought about rapid improvements in transportation and communication, such as steamships, railways, and telegraphs. Medical advances, particularly medicines for tropical diseases, also helped to mitigate the adverse effects of colonization.
Sub-Saharan Africa, largely untouched by "informal imperialism," attracted business entrepreneurs. Surplus capital was often invested overseas due to the availability of cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials. The demand for raw materials like ivory, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin further fueled imperialism.
Pro-imperialist lobbyists argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would address issues of low prices and overproduction caused by shrinking continental markets.
A Brief History of The Scramble For Africa
Read also: Correct Niger Pronunciation
The vast interior between Egypt and the gold and diamond-rich Southern Africa held strategic value in securing overseas trade routes. Britain, under political pressure to build lucrative markets in India, Malaya, Australia, and New Zealand, sought to control the Suez Canal, completed in 1869, as a key waterway between East and West.
The scramble for African territory also reflected the desire to acquire military and naval bases for strategic purposes. Growing navies and steam-powered ships required coaling stations and ports for maintenance. Colonies were seen as valuable assets in balance-of-power negotiations and as potential sources of military manpower.
The Formation of French West Africa
France's expansion into the African interior primarily occurred from the coasts of West Africa eastward through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara. Their goal was to establish an uninterrupted connection across the continent.
French West Africa was an administrative grouping of former French territories in West Africa under French rule from 1895 to 1958. It initially included Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, and the French Sudan. Dahomey (Benin) was added in 1899.
Certain territories of the Sudan were grouped together under the name Senegambia and Niger (Sénégambie-Niger; 1903), which was transformed into Upper Senegal and Niger (Haut-Sénégal-Niger; 1904). At the same time, Mauritania (Maurétanie) was added to French West Africa.
Read also: Colonial Territories in Africa
The colony of Upper Volta (Haute-Volta), founded in 1909 and attached in 1932 to the Ivory Coast, was reestablished as a territory of the federation in 1947. Upper Senegal and Niger was renamed the French Sudan in 1920.
Berlin Conference and Its Impact
In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the Berlin Conference to address the "African problem." While discussions included ending the slave trade and missionary activities, the primary concern was preventing war among European powers as they divided the continent. The diplomats established rules for seeking colonies, emphasizing the principle of "effective occupation." No nation could claim territory without notifying other powers or before effectively occupying it.
The Berlin Conference transformed Africa's colonization from informal economic penetration to systematic political control through its 'effective occupation' principle.
Key Players in the Scramble
- Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza: Explored the Congo River region for France in the early 1880s.
- Henry Morton Stanley: Explored the Congo on behalf of Leopold II of Belgium.
- Leopold II of Belgium: Organized the International African Association in 1876 and gained control of the Congo Free State.
The Brutality of Colonial Rule
The brutality of King Leopold II in the Congo Free State was well-documented, with an estimated 8 million out of 16 million native inhabitants dying between 1885 and 1908. This depopulation was attributed to indiscriminate war, starvation, reduced birth rates, and diseases. Sleeping sickness and smallpox decimated populations, particularly around the lower Congo River.
A similar situation occurred in the neighboring French Congo, where concession companies employed brutal methods and introduced diseases, resulting in the loss of up to 50% of the indigenous population. The French government appointed a commission in 1905 to investigate these abuses.
Read also: A Deep Dive into Ghana's Languages
Other Colonial Powers
Germany, initially disliking colonies, eventually succumbed to popular pressure in the 1880s. The German Empire became the third-largest colonial power in Africa, with possessions including Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika.
Italy sought to expand its territory after unification, taking possession of parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882. It later occupied territory on the Horn of Africa, forming Italian Somaliland. In 1911, Italy acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, which became Italian Libya.
The End of Colonialism
By 1960, the formerly colonial territories of French West Africa had become independent republics. French Sudan changed its name to Mali, and Upper Volta was renamed Burkina Faso in 1984.
| Former Territory | Year of Independence | New Name |
|---|---|---|
| Senegal | 1960 | Senegal |
| French Guinea | 1958 | Guinea |
| Ivory Coast | 1960 | Ivory Coast |
| French Sudan | 1960 | Mali |
| Dahomey | 1960 | Benin |
| Upper Volta | 1960 | Burkina Faso (renamed in 1984) |
| Mauritania | 1960 | Mauritania |
Popular articles:
tags: #Africa
