Ethiopian crosses stand as a testament to the artistic ingenuity and spiritual devotion of the Ethiopian people. Their intricate designs and profound symbolism have made them not only valuable collectibles but also revered objects of worship and cultural pride. Ethiopian crosses hold a profound significance within the cultural and spiritual tapestry of Ethiopia, reflecting the country’s deep-rooted history and rich religious heritage.
An Ethiopian Orthodox priest holding a golden blessing cross.
Origins and Early History
The origins of Ethiopian crosses can be traced back to early Christianity, believed to have been introduced by the Nine Saints who arrived in Ethiopia during the 5th and 6th centuries. Christianity most likely arrived in Ethiopia in the first century. The conversion of King Ezana in 330 c.e. led to its official acceptance and the minting of coins bearing one of the earliest uses of the cross as a Christian symbol. Ethiopia was the second country after Armenia to accept Christianity as its official religion, and Ethiopians remain among the world’s staunchest adherents to the Christian faith.
Although it initially fully embraced Christianity, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church forged its own cultural and religious path and maintained its independence from European influence. Until the early 15th century, it remained isolated from the outside world. In the 16-17th century there was limited contact, but that was followed again by two centuries of isolation. Thus, for most of its 1600 year existence, Ethiopia flourished by following its own religious course independent from outside influences.
The cross is one of the oldest and most predominant symbols of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and no other region has produced the quantity, quality, and diversity of designs as the Ethiopian highlands in Ethiopia and modern Eritrea. Ethiopian artisans have historically produced beautiful crosses with ornate and unique designs that reflect local differences in styles and interpretations as well as their highly skilled talents.
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Ethiopian crosses are crafted using a variety of materials, ranging from precious metals like gold and silver to traditional materials such as brass and copper.
Types of Ethiopian Crosses
Ethiopian crosses come in various forms, each carrying its distinct characteristics and symbolism:
- Processional crosses: These are large and ornate crosses often used during religious processions and ceremonies. Processional crosses are huge and elaborate, mounted on shafts, and carried in churches ceremonies.
- Hand crosses: These are personal objects possessed by every Ethiopian ecclesiastic. Hand crosses are used for blessing, they may be spread inside the church around the windows in the apotropaic purpose, the larger examples serving as the altar crosses. Hand crosses, which are used by priests, are either hand-held or suspended from a cord around the neck. They are kissed by the faithful to receive a blessing.
- Pendant crosses: These are smaller crosses typically worn as religious jewelry. The small pendant crosses are worn by every Ethiopian Christian but especially by women, often as a complement to a cross-tattoo on the forehead, hand or neck. Pendants, also called neck or pectoral crosses, are the most common, numerous, unique, and are fabricated by local metalsmiths in many villages.
- Staff crosses: These are a long staff topped with medium size crosses forged from iron and are used by both wandering monks and important monastic figures.
The characteristic element of these crosses is the handle ending with a squared base, that when large was used for an extra decoration and/or inscription.
Materials and Craftsmanship
Ethiopian crosses are crafted using a variety of materials, ranging from precious metals like gold and silver to traditional materials such as brass and copper. Traditional craftsmen use age-old techniques to meticulously handcraft each cross. The intricate lattice-like patterns represent the interconnectedness of humanity and divinity.
Since metal was initially rare in Ethiopia crosses were initially made from wood, bone, and leather. In the late 18th century when Arab merchants brought Austrian Maria Theresa silver coins called Thalers to Africa, silver became the material of choice for Ethiopian crosses. Thalers rapidly became the national Ethiopian currency and were the unofficial monetary exchange in some parts of Africa, Asia, and the Arab world for the next 150 years due to its purity and uniform weight.
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Early 19th and 20th century crosses were made using melted Austrian Thalers containing a regulated content mixture of.833 silver and .166 copper. With many Thaler restrikes the creation of crosses increased. Contemporary pendants are manufactured, cast, or cut in a single piece from a variety of metals, many of which still have silver content.
Symbolism and Design
Ethiopian crosses are laden with symbolism. They reflect spiritual piety and are a “source of blessing, power and protection under God… [and Christ who is viewed as the]…“redeemer, protector and benefactor of humanity.” (Abbink). Crosses are called meskel in Ge’ez, the liturgical language of the Ethiopian church, and they are ubiquitous in Ethiopian and Eritrean cultures.
Ethiopian crosses, Abyssinian crosses, or Ethiopian-Eritrean crosses are a grouping of Christian cross variants that are symbols of Christianity in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and among Ethiopians and Eritreans. Their elaborate, stylized design is markedly distinct from other Christian cross variants. Ethiopian crosses are almost always made from elaborate latticework, the intertwined lattice represents everlasting life. No two crosses are exactly identical in style, the artisans who make them being allowed the freedom to exercise a measure of individual taste and creativity in their choice of shape and pattern.
Ethiopian crosses are based on the Latin cross, they are primarily based on Coptic prototypes. Circles were often included in the design of old Coptic crosses, and they sometimes included the Egyptian circle called the ankh surmounted on a Latin cross. Modern Coptic crosses created since the 19th century are often made with two thick arms of equal length dividing the cross at right angles, and many of these have three points on each of the four ends and are called a cross fleury symbolizing the Trinity. When combined, they have 12 points that symbolize the 12 Apostles who spread the Gospel.
The voids in the patterns require less metal, making the crosses more economic to make and lighter to wear. The delicate matrixes elevate the artistic beauty and unique radiance of each piece and create interplays between light and shadow, contrasting material presence and absence, and juxtaposing materiality and immateriality. The thread-like elements are a never-ending knot without a beginning or end symbolizing eternity and everlasting life as well as unity and order and the “…union of humanity and divinity in Christ that makes possible the salvation of the world; and the union of matter and spirit in all human beings and their experiences, as well as in their hopes for both physical and spiritual salvation, the well-being of body and soul.” (Evangelatou)
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Orthodox Ethiopians wear crosses not only for spiritual reasons but also to promote the healing of the body and spirit and provide protection from evil. Some crosses are commissioned as apotropaic objects, talismans, or amulets infused with special magic powers that can repel evil forces, avert harm, deflect misfortune, and prevent curses and the “evil eye.” (Balicka-Witakowska). The cross itself, as well as certain design features in the shape of a cross, is also said to have the power to ward off evil.
A major apotropaic symbol called the ‘labyrinthine meander’ is commonly used in the form of lattice knotted patterns of endless lines that overlap and weave within each other and are seen as thwarting malevolent beings from entering or reaching believers, as evil spirits follow the endless lines and become entrapped in them for eternity. Likewise, incised and scratched criss-cross or mesh patterns also conquer demons by trapping them inside the net they create.
Another motif of Ethiopian Crosses is the Star of David. Tradition states that the first Jewish people came to Ethiopia during the extended drought and famine in Canaan at the time of Abraham (1812-1637 BE). A Jewish Ethiopian empire called the House of Soloman (Solomonic Dynasty) made up of descendants from the biblical King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba ruled there from the 10th century. Their tradition states that the queen gave birth to Menelik I after visiting Solomon in Jerusalem as described in the Old Testament.
They are presented to newborns at baptism and become cherished possessions passed down through generations. Many are decorated on both sides with etched, soldered, and punctate designs and usually have a small soldered top suspension loop for the cord to pass through. Pendant crosses have traditionally been made using the “lost wax” casting process (cire perdue) in which metal is poured into a wax mold covered in clay, and dried. The mold is broken creating a one of a kind work of art to which decorative etching, stamped designs, and additions might be later attached.
Ethiopian crosses are referred to by several names including Coptic or Abyssinian crosses and by the name of the Ethiopian regions or towns where they were created. The three main styles are Axum, Gondar or Lalibala, and the majority of neck pendants are made in the Axum style, created in the Tigrai region of Ethiopia and in Eritrea.
What Is The Religious Significance Of Ethiopian Crosses? - Art Across Cultures
Regional Variations
The Ethiopian cross varies regionally in design and they are either cast using the lost wax method or cut directly from their base metal. The crosses have a rich and varied array of influences which Angela Fisher describes in her wonderful book Africa Adorned:“The oldest are simple Greek or Latin design. Those with flared arms show the influence of Coptic crosses from upper and lower Egypt; others, probably under Celtic influence, developed trefoils or decorative projections. With the ready supply of silver in the nineteenth century, the crosses became more elaborate; complicated openwork designs, or patterns of endless interwoven lines symbolising eternity became popular. Additional hinges and crowns show the influence of nineteenth century European medals. The star of David is worn by the Falasha, a small group of Jewish settlers living near Gonder. The four birds represent the doves of peace.”
Although design elements are added to crosses using well-recognized symbolism and iconography, the wide variations that characterize these crosses reflect style and interpretational differences from the areas and regions where they were created and also the unique sensibilities and talents of highly skilled artisans.
The Cross as a Personal and Spiritual Item
Ethiopians have worn pendant crosses since the first millennium of Christianity when they were introduced from the Roman and Byzantine civilizations. (Southworld) They are spiritual symbols demonstrating their followers’ devotion to Christ and reflect the direct relationship of Orthodox Christian Ethiopians as descendants of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.
Made in a variety of sizes, designs, styles, and ornamentation, pendant crosses are worn by all Ethiopian Christians and are especially revered by women. (Balicka-Witakowska) Worn around the neck hanging at the chest over or underneath their clothing they are often suspended on a blue cotton thread or tri-colored cord called a mateb. The mateb is one of the earliest Ethiopian symbols of Christian faith made of white, red and black woven strands symbolizing the Trinity. (Southworld). They are decorative personal ornaments with a religious significance that display variety and creativity in both form and design while reflecting the regional styles of the artisans who created them.
Since the 15th century, their intricate designs and symbols have been metaphors for the religious beliefs, ideology, and practices of the Ethiopian Church recognized by devotees in all levels of society. Well-understood symbols and forms were base of the crosses which were embellished with unique creative details. Maria Evangelatou has brilliantly explored this in her paper on the symbolic language of Ethiopian Crosses where she asserts this threads design motif, which required skilled and labor intensive artisanship, reflects practical, artistic, spiritual, and protective concerns.
For the past few decades, Ethiopian Crosses have been considered trendy decorative items, acquired as a fashion statement. While these pendant crosses are attractive accessories and may be viewed as fashion statements, they should be understood and appreciated as unique and revered personal and spiritual items.
