The Ethiopian Orthodox Cross, also known as the Abyssinian Cross, is at the heart of one of the world’s earliest Christian civilizations. Still used in liturgy and processions today, the cross reflects Ethiopia’s unique Christian heritage. Explore its history, symbolism, and cultural importance in detail throughout this article.
Ethiopian crosses, also referred to as Abyssinian crosses or Ethiopian-Eritrean crosses, represent a collection of Christian cross variations that symbolize Christianity in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and among Ethiopians and Eritreans. Their intricate and stylized design sets them apart from other Christian cross variants.
Ethiopia is unique among Christian lands for the incomparable prominence of the cross in the life of its people and for the inexhaustible variety and intricacy of decorative patterns on cross-shaped objects of all kinds.
Crosses of wondrous diversity and sophistication are extensively used in religious and magic rituals, as well as in the daily social interactions and personal experiences of people in a variety of contexts.
The cross is one of the oldest and most predominant symbols of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and no other region has produced the quantity, quality, and diversity of designs as the Ethiopian highlands in Ethiopia and modern Eritrea. Ethiopian artisans have historically produced beautiful crosses with ornate and unique designs that reflect local differences in styles and interpretations as well as their highly skilled talents. Their crosses reflect spiritual piety and are a “source of blessing, power and protection under God… [and Christ who is viewed as the]…“redeemer, protector and benefactor of humanity.” (Abbink).
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In Ethiopia the Cross is perceived of as an emblem of triumph rather than of death. As such it is not only a symbol of the Passion but an instrument by which God affords health to mankind and reestablishes the life of the spirit as well as that of the body. These ideas relating to the significance of this seminal motif are especially beautifully expressed through this work in a regional vernacular style.
This book explores the ways in which Ethiopian crosses reflect and shape a broad range of ideas, from religious beliefs to interrelated socio-political values, and from individual notions of identity and protection to cultural constructs of local and universal dimensions.
Thus the cross of the Ethiopian tradition emerges as the sacred matrix that encompasses the life of the world in both its microcosmic and macrocosmic dimensions; and as the social and cultural nexus through which and with which people interact in order to shape and express personal and communal identities and hopes.
The investigation includes textual and visual evidence, as well as aspects of Ethiopian history and cultural tradition, and highlights elements of both continuity and change.
Special attention is given to religious rituals in which crosses guide the participants to internalize abstract ideas central to their culture, through sensorial experience and interaction.
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A main objective of this analysis is to contribute to an understanding of visual creations as interactive depositories and therefore also generators of ideas, with an influential role in identity formation, socio-cultural interactions and the construction of power relations.
Ethiopian crosses hold a profound significance within the cultural and spiritual tapestry of Ethiopia, reflecting the country’s deep-rooted history and rich religious heritage. These exquisite crosses, known for their unique design and symbolism, have captured the attention of collectors and art enthusiasts worldwide.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has retained a strong role in the lives, culture, and religion of its members from the time Coptic Christians arrived from Egypt in the 4th century A.D. to the current day.
Ethiopia was the second country after Armenia to accept Christianity as its official religion, and Ethiopians remain among the world’s staunchest adherents to the Christian faith.
Although it initially fully embraced Christianity, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church forged its own cultural and religious path and maintained its independence from European influence. Until the early 15th century, it remained isolated from the outside world. In the 16-17th century there was limited contact, but that was followed again by two centuries of isolation. Thus, for most of its 1600 year existence, Ethiopia flourished by following its own religious course independent from outside influences. This enabled the Church to retain much of its early simplicity, purity, symbolism, and the practices that were derived from earlier Christian cultures.
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Crosses are called meskel in Ge’ez, the liturgical language of the Ethiopian church, and they are ubiquitous in Ethiopian and Eritrean cultures. They are everywhere; behind altars, carried in processions and by individual priests for blessings, used inside homes, and worn by all as small pendants.
How an Ethiopian Cross (MESQEL) is made
There are four types of crosses: staff, processional, hand-held, and pendant. (Balicka-Witakowska)
- Staff crosses are a long staff topped with medium size crosses forged from iron and are used by both wandering monks and important monastic figures.
- Processional crosses are huge and elaborate, mounted on shafts, and carried in churches ceremonies.
- Hand-held crosses are about 12 to 24 inches long and used only by clerics and monks, and other crosses from about 4 to10 inches are held by priests and used for blessings.
- Pendants, also called neck or pectoral crosses, are the most common, numerous, unique, and are fabricated by local metalsmiths in many villages.
Since metal was initially rare in Ethiopia crosses were initially made from wood, bone, and leather. In the late 18th century when Arab merchants brought Austrian Maria Theresa silver coins called Thalers to Africa, silver became the material of choice for Ethiopian crosses. Thalers rapidly became the national Ethiopian currency and were the unofficial monetary exchange in some parts of Africa, Asia, and the Arab world for the next 150 years due to its purity and uniform weight. Originally struck in 1740 to 1780, they were in such great demand, restrikes occurred through the 19th century. Thalers were melted into sheets of silver and cut to fabricate larger crosses, and in the late 19th and early 20th century were melted for use in lost wax molds for pendant crosses. Contemporary pendants are manufactured, cast, or cut in a single piece from a variety of metals, many of which still have silver content.
Ethiopian Orthodox Church Cross History
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church Cross History: Christianity reached Ethiopia in the 4th century under King Ezana of Aksum, who converted after the preaching of Saint Frumentius, later consecrated as bishop by Athanasius of Alexandria (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History). By around 330 CE, Ethiopia joined Armenia and the Roman Empire as one of the first states to declare Christianity the official religion. Coins minted under Ezana replaced pagan motifs with crosses, making the symbol not only religious but political, a visible declaration of a Christian kingdom (Munro-Hay, 1991).
The earliest known Ethiopian crosses derive from the monumental stelae of Aksum, which used the architectural form of the afkos (a stepped square base) later incorporated into cross designs (Anfray, 1990). This continuity links the cross to Ethiopia’s royal and sacred past, bridging pre-Christian and Christian heritage. Thus, the Ethiopian Cross is not merely an imported symbol but a uniquely rooted cultural and religious expression.
From carved reliefs in Aksum to the rock-hewn sanctuaries of Lalibela in the 12th-13th century, Ethiopian crosses have preserved an evolving yet unbroken tradition. The Lalibela churches, commissioned by King Lalibela, incorporate cross-shaped windows and bas-reliefs that later influenced entire schools of cross design (Derat, 2018).
Ethiopian crosses are referred to by several names including Coptic or Abyssinian crosses and by the name of the Ethiopian regions or towns where they were created. The three main styles are Axum, Gondar or Lalibala, and the majority of neck pendants are made in the Axum style, created in the Tigrai region of Ethiopia and in Eritrea.
Ethiopian crosses are based on the Latin cross, they are primarily based on Coptic prototypes.(1 ) Circles were often included in the design of old Coptic crosses, and they sometimes included the Egyptian circle called the ankh surmounted on a Latin cross. (Beyer). Modern Coptic crosses created since the 19th century are often made with two thick arms of equal length dividing the cross at right angles, and many of these have three points on each of the four ends and are called a cross fleury symbolizing the Trinity. When combined, they have 12 points that symbolize the 12 Apostles who spread the Gospel.
Although design elements are added to crosses using well-recognized symbolism and iconography, the wide variations that characterize these crosses reflect style and interpretational differences from the areas and regions where they were created and also the unique sensibilities and talents of highly skilled artisans.
Ethiopians have worn pendant crosses since the first millennium of Christianity when they were introduced from the Roman and Byzantine civilizations. (Southworld) They are spiritual symbols demonstrating their followers’ devotion to Christ and reflect the direct relationship of Orthodox Christian Ethiopians as descendants of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.
Made in a variety of sizes, designs, styles, and ornamentation, pendant crosses are worn by all Ethiopian Christians and are especially revered by women. (Balicka-Witakowska) Worn around the neck hanging at the chest over or underneath their clothing they are often suspended on a blue cotton thread or tri-colored cord called a mateb.
The mateb is one of the earliest Ethiopian symbols of Christian faith made of white, red and black woven strands symbolizing the Trinity. (Southworld). They are decorative personal ornaments with a religious significance that display variety and creativity in both form and design while reflecting the regional styles of the artisans who created them. They are presented to newborns at baptism and become cherished possessions passed down through generations. Many are decorated on both sides with etched, soldered, and punctate designs and usually have a small soldered top suspension loop for the cord to pass through.
Pendant crosses have traditionally been made using the “lost wax” casting process (cire perdue) in which metal is poured into a wax mold covered in clay, and dried. The mold is broken creating a one of a kind work of art to which decorative etching, stamped designs, and additions might be later attached. Early 19th and 20th century crosses were made using melted Austrian Thalers containing a regulated content mixture of.833 silver and .166 copper. With many Thaler restrikes the creation of crosses increased. These pendants blend spiritual, community, and personal beliefs and are a a form of interacting between human and divine spheres.
Since the 15th century, their intricate designs and symbols have been metaphors for the religious beliefs, ideology, and practices of the Ethiopian Church recognized by devotees in all levels of society. Well-understood symbols and forms were base of the crosses which were embellished with unique creative details.
Maria Evangelatou has brilliantly explored this in her paper on the symbolic language of Ethiopian Crosses where she asserts this threads design motif, which required skilled and labor intensive artisanship, reflects practical, artistic, spiritual, and protective concerns. The voids in the patterns require less metal, making the crosses more economic to make and lighter to wear.
The delicate matrixes elevate the artistic beauty and unique radiance of each piece and create interplays between light and shadow, contrasting material presence and absence, and juxtaposing materiality and immateriality.
The thread-like elements are a never-ending knot without a beginning or end symbolizing eternity and everlasting life as well as unity and order and the “…union of humanity and divinity in Christ that makes possible the salvation of the world; and the union of matter and spirit in all human beings and their experiences, as well as in their hopes for both physical and spiritual salvation, the well-being of body and soul.” (Evangelatou)
As explained below, the knotted patterns are also apotropaic symbols that protect and heal humankind and ward off evil.
Crosses are enhanced by motifs that enrich their symbolic significance and refer to the history of the world and human salvation as seen through the eyes of Ethiopian orthodoxy. Stylized images of birds with the cross transforms it into a symbolic tree, and it becomes the Tree of Knowledge and the Tree of Life that provides wood for the True Cross and mirrors the circle of life marking the beginning of mankind and humanity’s return to paradise.
Orthodox Ethiopians wear crosses not only for spiritual reasons but also to promote the healing of the body and spirit and provide protection from evil. Some crosses are commissioned as apotropaic objects, talismans, or amulets infused with special magic powers that can repel evil forces, avert harm, deflect misfortune, and prevent curses and the “evil eye.” (Balicka-Witakowska).
The cross itself, as well as certain design features in the shape of a cross, is also said to have the power to ward off evil. Some symbols appearing on Ethiopian churches and crosses are considered spiritual protective markers with special magical powers that bring blessings and protection to devotees. A major apotropaic symbol called the ‘labyrinthine meander’ is commonly used in the form of lattice knotted patterns of endless lines that overlap and weave within each other and are seen as thwarting malevolent beings from entering or reaching believers, as evil spirits follow the endless lines and become entrapped in them for eternity. Likewise, incised and scratched criss-cross or mesh patterns also conquer demons by trapping them inside the net they create.
Another motif of Ethiopian Crosses is the Star of David. Tradition states that the first Jewish people came to Ethiopia during the extended drought and famine in Canaan at the time of Abraham (1812-1637 BE). A Jewish Ethiopian empire called the House of Soloman (Solomonic Dynasty) made up of descendants from the biblical King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba ruled there from the 10th century. Their tradition states that the queen gave birth to Menelik I after visiting Solomon in Jerusalem as described in the Old Testament.
For the past few decades, Ethiopian Crosses have been considered trendy decorative items, acquired as a fashion statement. While these pendant crosses are attractive accessories and may be viewed as fashion statements, they should be understood and appreciated as unique and revered personal and spiritual items.
Symbolism and Theology
The Ethiopian Cross is most often composed of elaborate latticework, sometimes described as “lace-like.” These endless patterns represent eternity, echoing Christ’s promise of eternal life (John 11:25). Art historian Claude Lepage (1973) argues that the crosses are not literal depictions of the crucifixion but abstractions of the Cross as the Tree of Life - a theological statement embodied in geometry and light.
Circular motifs incorporated into many Ethiopian crosses symbolize unity and perfection in God. The latticework suggests interconnection, interpreted as the “weaving” of prayer and creation (Prunier, 2015). When lifted during liturgy, the cross acts as a visual bridge between heaven and earth, a role reinforced by ritual practice.
Beyond symbolic meaning, crosses serve in healing rituals. Priests dip hand crosses (mäṣqäl) into water, which is then consumed as spiritual medicine (Kaplan, 1992). The cross thus operates as both theological symbol and practical object of blessing and healing.
Variations of the Ethiopian Cross
Ethiopian crosses are renowned for their diversity. Scholars like Marilyn Heldman have cataloged over 100 distinct forms of processional crosses (Heldman, 1994). This variety reflects both regional artistry and theological imagination.
A fundamental distinction exists between processional crosses (mäqwämiya), large and mounted on poles, and smaller hand crosses (mäṣqäl), essential tools of the priest’s identity (Mercier, 1997). The hand cross is so integral that priests are rarely seen without it, underscoring its role as both blessing instrument and personal devotional emblem.
The rock-hewn churches of Lalibela inspired a distinctive school of cross design, characterized by knotwork and elaborate interlace. These designs became prototypes for later metal crosses, merging architecture and devotion (Derat, 2018).
In the 17th century, Gondar became Ethiopia’s capital. Cross design absorbed influences from Portuguese and Indian art via trade, introducing floral motifs, openwork, and fluid forms - sometimes called the “Gonderine Baroque” (Pankhurst, 1997).
Neck crosses function as visible markers of faith. For centuries, they have distinguished Ethiopian Christians from neighboring Muslim and animist communities (Levine, 1965). To this day, baptism often includes the giving of a neck cross, tying identity, faith, and community together.
Some hand crosses feature a horizontal bar used as a grip during long services, allowing priests to rest the cross on the forehead during prayer (Mercier, 1979). This small adaptation highlights the functional ingenuity of Ethiopian liturgical practice.
Liturgical and Cultural Use
The Ethiopian Cross is most prominent during Timkat, the annual Orthodox Epiphany celebration. During Timkat, crosses accompany the Tabot - a replica of the Ark of the Covenant - in processions to water sources, reenacting Christ’s baptism. Recognized by UNESCO in 2019 as intangible cultural heritage, Timkat draws hundreds of thousands each year, showing the cross’s living role in Ethiopia’s religious life.
The cross is the only object permitted to rest directly on the Tabot, highlighting its supreme sanctity (Ullendorff, 1968). This connection to the Ark of the Covenant emphasizes its place not just as symbol, but as theologically central to Ethiopian worship.
Hand crosses are used to bless individuals, heal the sick, and sanctify spaces. Families treasure crosses as heirlooms, passing them down as sacred objects imbued with both spiritual and familial memory.
Artistry and Craftsmanship
Most Ethiopian crosses are produced using the ancient lost-wax (cire perdue) method. Each cross is unique, as the wax mold is destroyed during casting. This technique, in use for over a millennium (Chojnacki, 1990), creates pieces that are simultaneously art, theology, and craft.
