Masks are a prominent feature of African cultural heritage. Traditional African masks are worn in ceremonies and rituals across West, Central, and Southern Africa. They are used in events such as harvest celebrations, funerals, rites of passage, weddings, and coronations.
Imagine yourself in the grassy savannah of Burkina Faso. The dry heat of January radiates around you as you gather with a tribe of Bwa villagers to celebrate their successful summer harvest. Drummers tap out a loud rhythmic beat as a group of dancers dressed in suits of dyed grass and hibiscus leaf begin to dance. These ceremonies play an important role in all facets of life in Burkina Faso, as well as in many other countries and tribal nations on the continent of Africa. While the individual beliefs and ceremonies may differ between tribes, the common thread between them is the great importance of masks in the celebration of traditional African spiritual practices.
The history, use, and symbolism of masks vary across national, ethnic, and cultural identities. Though the precise origins of masking traditions in precolonial Africa remain unknown, Raphael Chijioke Njoku theorized that masquerades developed among the Bantu people sometime before 3000-2500 BCE. Other theories are drawn from folklore and legends. Alex Asigbo argued that masquerade cults were developed by male elders as a form of social control.
Through the age-old practices of witchcraft and sorcery, women were thought to possess immense power over their male counterparts. "Masquerades therefore perform certain social control functions by enforcing discipline and upholding natural law." With the exception of the Sande society, women in most African societies are not allowed to actively participate in masquerade activities.
Masks may symbolize spirits of the dead, totem animals, and other supernatural forces. During a performance, the masked masquerader transforms into the spirit or entity represented by the mask. The transformation of the mask wearer's identity is reinforced through song and dance. Nwantantay or plank masks, for example, represent spirits of the natural word associated with water ranging from insects to waterfowl.
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Some groups like the Dogon people of Mali possess several masks, each with its own unique function. The Dogon are governed by three main religious orders: the Awa (cult of the dead), Bini (cult of the ancestors), and Lebe (cult of nature). The importance of the spirit portrayed is often reflected by the masks's complexity and artistic quality.
Traditional African masks are a very important part of African culture and art.
Explore the Sacred Mask Cultures: Meaning, Rituals, and Spiritual Significance of African Masks
The Art and Symbolism Behind African Masks
The wooden masks of Mali they usually have a human-like face, with a slightly elongated forehead and nose. These masks are often used in ceremonies and rituals to honor the spirit or ancestor they represent.
African masks usually emulate a human or animal face in an abstract way. The inherent lack of realism in African masks (and African art in general) is justified by the fact that most African cultures clearly distinguish the essence of a subject from its looks, the former, rather than the latter, being the actual subject of artistic representation.
Stylish elements in a mask's looks are codified by the tradition and may either identify a specific community or convey specific meanings. For example, both the Bwa and the Buna people of Burkina Faso have hawk masks, with the shape of the beak identifying a mask as either Bwa or Buna. The hawk's wings often have geometric patterns that teach moral lessons. Saw-shaped lines might show the difficult path ancestors took.
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Many cultures use mask features to show moral values. Masks from the Senufo people of Ivory Coast, for example, have their eyes half closed, symbolizing a peaceful attitude, self-control, and patience. In Sierra Leone and elsewhere, small eyes and mouth represent humility, and a wide, protruding forehead represents wisdom. In Gabon, large chins and mouths show authority and strength. The Grebo people of the Ivory Coast carve masks with round eyes to show alertness and anger.
The colours and patterns of the Black and Gold collection are common in traditional African masks, such as this Hausa mask from Ghana. Colour can also have significant meaning when used for the decoration of masks, particularly for tribes who rely primarily on visual symbolism rather than written or verbal forms of communication. These meanings may differ slightly between tribes however some are widely accepted. For example, white is generally used to symbolise spiritual purity and beauty, while black is symbolic of emotional maturity. In a similar way, the use of gold symbolises abundance in a number of forms, obviously including monetary wealth and status, but also wisdom and spiritual wellbeing. It is also believed by many tribes to have mystical abilities such as driving away negative energies and spirits. Similarly, the shapes and patterns used to decorate these masks can also be used for communication or simply for adornment. In some tribes of West Africa, ornate patterns on masks are used to represent the scarification of the body, which is often used as a sign of bravery and leadership in war, and was also used in the 15th and 16th centuries to prevent tribal members from being taken to the Americas.
African cultures are unique in that they don’t view darkness as a negative but rather as a necessary force in the balance of life.
Animal Masks: Embodying the Spirit of the Wild
Animals are common subjects in African masks. Animal masks typically embody the spirit of animals, so that the mask-wearer becomes a medium to speak to animals themselves (e.g. to ask wild beasts to stay away from the village); in many cases, nevertheless, an animal is also (sometimes mainly) a symbol of specific virtues.
Common animal subjects include the buffalo (usually representing strength, as in the Baoulé culture), crocodile, hawk, hyena, warthog and antelope. Antelopes have a fundamental role in many cultures of the Mali area (for example in Dogon and Bambara culture) as representatives of agriculture. Dogon antelope masks are highly abstract, with a general rectangular shape and many horns (a representation of abundant harvest. Bambara antelope masks, called chiwara, have long horns that show how well millet grows. Their legs represent roots, and long ears represent the songs women sing while working during harvest. A saw-shaped line on the mask shows the path the Sun takes between the solstices.
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A common variation on the animal-mask theme is the composition of several distinct animal traits in a single mask, sometimes along with human traits. Merging distinct animal traits together is sometimes a means to represent unusual, exceptional virtue or high status. For example, the Poro secret groups of the Senufo people in the Ivory Coast have masks that combine three "danger" symbols: antelope horns, crocodile teeth, and warthog fangs. This shows the society's great power. Another example is the kifwebe masks of the Songye people in the Congo basin.
Female Masks and Ancestor Veneration
Another common subject of African masks is a woman's face, usually based on a specific culture's ideal of feminine beauty. Female masks of the Punu people of Gabon, for example, have long curved eyelashes, almond-shaped eyes, thin chin, and traditional ornaments on their cheeks, as all these are considered good-looking traits. Feminine masks of the Baga people have ornamental scars and breasts. One of the well-known representations of female beauty is the Idia mask of Benin. It is believed to have been commissioned by King Esigie of Benin in memory of his mother.
As the veneration of defunct ancestors is a fundamental element of most African traditional cultures, it is not surprising that the dead is also a common subject for masks. Masks referring to dead ancestors are most often shaped after a human skull. A well-known example is the mwana pwo mask from the Chokwe people of Angola. Its name means "young woman." This mask combines features of feminine beauty, like a well-shaped oval face, small nose, and chin. But it also has features that suggest death, like sunken eye sockets, cracked skin, and tears. It represents a young female ancestor who died early.
A special class of ancestor masks are those related to notable, historical or legendary people. For example, the mwaash ambooy mask of the Kuba people in DR Congo represents Woot. Woot was the legendary founder of the Kuba Kingdom.
In many traditional African cultures, when someone puts on a mask, they are believed to stop being just a person. They become the spirit that the mask represents. This change often happens with special music, dances, or costumes. These things help the person wearing the mask feel like they are no longer themselves. The mask wearer then acts as a go-between for the community and the spirits. These spirits are often ancestors or spirits connected to nature.
Materials and Construction of African Masks
The most commonly used material for masks is wood, although a wide variety of other elements can be used, including light stone such as steatite, metals such as copper or bronze, different types of fabric, pottery, and more. Some masks are painted (for example using ochre or other natural colorants). A wide array of ornamental items can be applied to the mask surface; examples include animal hair, horns, or teeth, sea shells, seeds, straw, egg shell, and feathers.
The general structure of a mask varies depending on the way it is intended to be worn. The most common type applies to the wearer's face, like most Western (e.g., carnival) masks. Others are worn like hats on the top of the wearer's head; examples include those of the Ekhoi people of Nigeria and Bwa people of Burkina Faso, as well as the famous chiwara masks of the Bambara people. Some masks (for example those of the Sande society of Liberia and the Mende people of Sierra Leone, that are made from hollow tree stumps) are worn like helmets covering both the head and face. Some African cultures have mask-like decorations that are worn on the chest instead of the head or face.
African Masks in the Modern World
As African masks are largely appropriated by Europeans, they are widely commercialized and sold in most tourist-oriented markets and shops in Africa (as well as "ethnic" shops in the Western world). As a consequence, the traditional art of mask-making has gradually ceased to be a privileged, status-related practice, and mass production of masks has become widespread. While, in most cases, commercial masks are (more or less faithful) reproductions of traditional masks, this connection is weakening over time, as the logics of mass-production make it harder to identify the actual geographical and cultural origins of the masks found in such venues as curio shops and tourist markets. For example, the Okahandja market in Namibia mostly sells masks made in Zimbabwe. These are cheaper and easier to get than local masks.
These masks have even inspired artists in Europe and the Western world, especially in the 1900s. Art styles like cubism and expressionism got ideas from the many different African masks.
Masks are a key part of traditional life for people in Sub-Saharan Africa, from the Sahara Desert down to the Kalahari Desert. Even though what the masks mean can be different in each culture, some things are the same. For example, masks usually have a spiritual or religious meaning. They are used in special dances and events. The artists who make the masks and the people who wear them are highly respected. Often, the skill of making masks and the knowledge of their meanings are passed down from fathers to sons.
African masks have since come a long way - from tribal ceremonies, to exquisite collectible must haves, adorning the walls of many interiors around the world - from homes, to hotels and restaurants. I guess it boils down to personal choice.
When hanging an African mask on the wall, it is important to ensure that it is securely fastened by hanging it on a sturdy nail. If it is a light mask, then a small nail or adhesive will do. The mask should be placed away from direct sunlight and moisture.
| Mask Feature | Symbolic Meaning |
|---|---|
| Half-closed eyes | Peaceful attitude, self-control, patience |
| Small eyes and mouth | Humility |
| Wide, protruding forehead | Wisdom |
| Large chins and mouths | Authority and strength |
| Round eyes | Alertness and anger |
| White color | Spiritual purity and beauty |
| Black color | Emotional maturity |
| Gold color | Abundance, wealth, wisdom, spiritual wellbeing |
