Nomads are communities without fixed habitation who regularly move to and from areas, adapting to infertile regions such as steppe, tundra, or ice and sand, where mobility is the most efficient strategy for exploiting scarce resources. The English word nomad comes from the Middle French nomade, from Latin nomas ("wandering shepherd"), from Ancient Greek νομᾰ́ς (nomás, "roaming, wandering"). Most nomadic groups follow a fixed annual or seasonal pattern of movements and settlements.
Nomadic people traditionally travel by animal, canoe, sleigh, or on foot. Animals include camels, horses, dogs, and alpaca. Today, some nomads travel by motor vehicle.
Rider in Mongolia, 2012. Nomads are communities who move from place to place as a way of obtaining food, finding pasture for livestock, or otherwise making a living.
Types of Nomadic Communities
Nomads keep moving for different reasons:
- Nomadic foragers move in search of game, edible plants, and water. Aboriginal Australians, Negritos of Southeast Asia, and San of Africa, for example, traditionally move from camp to camp to hunt and gather wild plants. Some tribes of the Americas followed this way of life.
- Pastoral nomads, on the other hand, make their living raising livestock such as camels, cattle, goats, horses, sheep, or yaks; these nomads usually travel in search of pastures for their flocks. The Fulani and their cattle travel through the grasslands of Niger in western Africa.
- Some nomadic peoples, especially herders, may also move to raid settled communities or to avoid enemies.
- Nomadic craftworkers and merchants travel to find and serve customers.
Starting fire by hand. Hunter-gatherers (also known as foragers) move from campsite to campsite, following game and wild fruits and vegetables.
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Many nomadic and pastorally nomadic peoples are associated with semi-arid and desert climates; examples include the Mongolic and Turkic peoples of Central Asia, the Plains Indians of the Great Plains, and the Amazigh and other peoples of the Sahara Desert.
Most nomads travel in groups of families, bands, or tribes. These groups are based on kinship and marriage ties or on formal agreements of cooperation. In the case of Mongolian nomads, a family moves twice a year. These two movements generally occur during the summer and winter. The winter destination is usually located near the mountains in a valley and most families already have fixed winter locations.
Their winter locations have shelter for animals and are not used by other families while they are out. In the summer they move to a more open area in which the animals can graze. Most nomads usually move within the same region and do not travel very far. Since they usually circle around a large area, communities form and families generally know where the other ones are.
Often, families do not have the resources to move from one province to another unless they are moving out of the area permanently. A family can move on its own or with others; if it moves alone, they are usually no more than a couple of kilometres from each other. The geographical closeness of families is usually for mutual support.
One nomadic society, the Mongols, gave rise to the largest land empire in history. The Mongols originally consisted of loosely organized nomadic tribes in Mongolia, Manchuria, and Siberia.
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The nomadic way of life has become increasingly rare. Modern forms of nomadic peoples are variously referred to as "shiftless", "gypsies", "rootless cosmopolitans", hunter-gatherers, refugees and urban homeless or street-people, depending on their individual circumstances.
Pastoral Nomadism
Pastoral nomads are nomads moving from pastures to pastures. Nomadic pastoralism is thought to have developed in three stages that accompanied population growth and an increase in the complexity of social organization. The pastoralists are sedentary to a certain area, as they move between the permanent spring, summer, autumn and winter (or dry and wet season) pastures for their livestock.
This lifestyle quickly developed into what Jaris Yurins has called the circum-Arabian nomadic pastoral techno-complex and is possibly associated with the appearance of Semitic languages in the region of the Ancient Near East.
Fulani herdsman in Togo.
One of the results of the break-up of the Soviet Union and the subsequent political independence and economic collapse of its Central Asian republics has been the resurgence of pastoral nomadism. Taking the Kyrgyz people as a representative example, nomadism was the centre of their economy before Russian colonization at the turn of the 20th century, when they were settled into agricultural villages.
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From 1920 to 2008, the population of nomadic pastoral tribes slowly decreased from over a quarter of Iran's population. Tribal pastures were nationalized during the 1960s.
In Kazakhstan where the major agricultural activity was nomadic herding, forced collectivization under Joseph Stalin's rule met with massive resistance and major losses and confiscation of livestock. Livestock in Kazakhstan fell from 7 million cattle to 1.6 million and from 22 million sheep to 1.7 million.
Recent Trends and Challenges
In the 1950s as well as the 1960s, large numbers of Bedouin throughout the Middle East started to leave the traditional, nomadic life to settle in the cities of the Middle East, especially as home ranges have shrunk and population levels have grown. Government policies in Egypt and Israel, oil production in Libya and the Persian Gulf, as well as a desire for improved standards of living, effectively led most Bedouin to become settled citizens of various nations, rather than stateless nomadic herders.
A century ago, nomadic Bedouin still made up some 10% of the total Arab population. At independence in 1960, Mauritania was essentially a nomadic society. The great Sahel droughts of the early 1970s caused massive problems in a country where 85% of its inhabitants were nomadic herders.
As many as 2 million nomadic Kuchis wandered over Afghanistan in the years before the Soviet invasion, and most experts agreed that by 2000 the number had fallen dramatically, perhaps by half. Niger experienced a serious food crisis in 2005 following erratic rainfall and desert locust invasions.
Nomadic Tribes Lifestyle Of Iran
Nomadic Diets
Pala nomads living in Western Tibet have a diet that is unusual in that they consume very few vegetables and no fruit. The main staple of their diet is tsampa and they drink Tibetan style butter tea. Pala will eat heartier foods in the winter months to help keep warm.
Some of the customary restrictions they explain as cultural saying only that drokha do not eat certain foods, even some that may be naturally abundant. Though they live near sources of fish and fowl these do not play a significant role in their diet, and they do not eat carnivorous animals, rabbits or the wild asses that are abundant in the environs, classifying the latter as horse due to their cloven hooves.
Some families do not eat until after the morning milking, while others may have a light meal with butter tea and tsampa. In the afternoon, after the morning milking, the families gather and share a communal meal of tea, tsampa and sometimes yogurt. During winter months the meal is more substantial and includes meat. Herders will eat before leaving the camp and most do not eat again until they return to camp for the evening meal. The typical evening meal may include thin stew with tsampa, animal fat and dried radish.
Nomadic diets in Kazakhstan have not changed much over centuries. The Kazakh nomad cuisine is simple and includes meat, salads, marinated vegetables and fried and baked breads. Tea is served in bowls, possibly with sugar or milk. Milk and other dairy products, like cheese and yogurt, are especially important. Kumys is a drink of fermented milk.
Wrestling is a popular sport, but the nomadic people do not have much time for leisure.
Perceptions of Nomadic Societies
Ann Marie Kroll Lerner states that the pastoral nomads were viewed as "invading, destructive, and altogether antithetical to civilizing, sedentary societies" during the late-19th and early-20th centuries. Allan Hill and Sara Randall observe that western authors have looked for "romance and mystery, as well as the repository of laudable characteristics believed lost in the West, such as independence, stoicism in the face of physical adversity, and a strong sense of loyalty to family and to tribe" in nomadic pastoralist societies.
Hill and Randall observe that nomadic pastoralists are stereotypically seen by the settled populace in Africa and Middle East as "aimless wanderers, immoral, promiscuous and disease-ridden" peoples.
Peripatetic Minorities
Each existing community is primarily endogamous, and subsists traditionally on a variety of commercial or service activities. Formerly, all or a majority of their members were itinerant, and this largely holds true today. Each of the peripatetic communities is multilingual, it speaks one or more of the languages spoken by the local sedentary populations, and, additionally, within each group, a separate dialect or language is spoken.
They are speaking languages of Indic origin and many are structured somewhat like an argot or secret language, with vocabularies drawn from various languages. In Afghanistan, the Nausar worked as tinkers and animal dealers. Ghorbat men mainly made sieves, drums, and bird cages, and the women peddled these as well as other items of household and personal use; they also worked as moneylenders to rural women.
Peddling and the sale of various goods was also practiced by men and women of various groups, such as the Jalali, the Pikraj, the Shadibaz, the Noristani, and the Vangawala. The latter and the Pikraj also worked as animal dealers. Some men among the Shadibaz and the Vangawala entertained as monkey or bear handlers and snake charmers; men and women among the Baluch were musicians and dancers.
The Baluch men were warriors that were feared by neighboring tribes and often were used as mercenaries. In Iran, the Asheq of Azerbaijan, the Challi of Baluchistan, the Luti of Kurdistan, Kermānshāh, Īlām, and Lorestān, the Mehtar in the Mamasani district, the Sazandeh of Band-i Amir and Marv-dasht, and the Toshmal among the Bakhtyari pastoral groups worked as professional musicians.
The men among the Kowli worked as tinkers, smiths, musicians, and monkey and bear handlers; they also made baskets, sieves, and brooms and dealt in donkeys. The Ghorbat among the Basseri were smiths and tinkers, traded in pack animals, and made sieves, reed mats, and small wooden implements. In the Fārs region, the Qarbalband, the Kuli, and Luli were reported to work as smiths and to make baskets and sieves; they also dealt in pack animals, and their women peddled various goods among pastoral nomads.
The nomadic groups in Turkey make and sell cradles, deal in animals, and play music. The men of the sedentary groups work in towns as scavengers and hangmen; elsewhere they are fishermen, smiths, basket makers, and singers; their women dance at feasts and tell fortunes. Abdal men played music and made sieves, brooms, and wooden spoons for a living.
Little is known for certain about the past of these communities; the history of each is almost entirely contained in their oral traditions. Although some groups-such as the Vangawala-are of Indian origin, some-like the Noristani-are most probably of local origin; still others probably migrated from adjoining areas. The Ghorbat and the Shadibaz claim to have originally come from Iran and Multan, respectively, and Tahtacı traditional accounts mention either Baghdad or Khorāsān as their original home.
Specific African Nomadic Tribes
Africa's cultural landscape is immensely diverse, with over 3,000 distinct tribes and ethnic groups. Here are a few notable examples:
The Maasai
Maasai people.
The Maasai are a semi-nomadic ethnic group primarily found in Kenya and Tanzania in East Africa. Known for their rich culture, unique traditions, and striking appearance, the Maasai are one of the most well-known indigenous groups in Africa.
- Language: The Maasai speak Maa, a language that belongs to the Nilotic language family.
- Clothing: The Maasai are instantly recognizable by their distinctive Shúkà, a red-checked or striped cloth that is worn wrapped around the body. The color red symbolizes strength, bravery, and the connection to their heritage.
- Cattle: Cattle are central to Maasai life, viewed as a symbol of wealth and status.
- Rites of Passage: Significant rituals mark transitions in life, including circumcision, initiation into adulthood, and marriage.
- Social Structure: The Maasai society is traditionally structured around age-sets and clans. Elders hold the highest social authority, and their advice is highly valued in decision-making processes.
- Marriage: Marriage in Maasai culture is often arranged, and a dowry of cattle is given to the bride’s family.
- Religion and Beliefs: Traditionally, the Maasai practice a form of monotheism, believing in a god called Enkai or Engai, who is associated with fertility, creation, and the rain.
The Maasai are believed to have migrated from the Nile Valley in the north to their present homeland in Kenya and Tanzania around the 15th century. During the colonial era, the Maasai experienced significant changes, including the loss of much of their land. Despite these challenges, the Maasai have been able to retain much of their cultural identity.
Many Maasai communities struggle with land rights, especially due to the pressures of urbanization and commercialization. As a pastoralist society, the Maasai depend heavily on the land and the grazing of cattle, making them vulnerable to climate change. Tourism plays a significant role in the modern economy for some Maasai communities, particularly those who live near national parks and reserves like the Maasai Mara in Kenya and Serengeti in Tanzania.
The Karimojong
Karimojong men in Uganda.
The Karimojong are an ethnic group primarily found in the northeastern region of Uganda, particularly in Karamoja, a semi-arid area. They are closely related to the Maasai and share many cultural traits, as both groups belong to the Nilotic language family.
- Language: The Karimojong speak Karimojong, a dialect of the Kalenjin language, which is part of the Nilotic language group.
- Cattle and Livelihood: Cattle are central to the Karimojong way of life, symbolizing wealth, status, and pride.
- Traditional Clothing: Men often wear a shuka, and women typically wear skirts made from hides or woven materials. Both adorn themselves with beadwork and jewelry.
- Rites of Passage: Circumcision is a critical part of the initiation process into manhood.
- Social Structure: Karimojong society is organized in a patriarchal structure, with elders holding significant authority.
- Marriage: Marriage is often arranged, and the exchange of cattle as a dowry is an essential part of the marriage process.
- Religion and Beliefs: The Karimojong practice a form of animism and have traditional beliefs that focus on spirits and the power of nature.
Throughout their history, the Karimojong have been largely semi-nomadic pastoralists, relying on their herds of cattle for sustenance and wealth. In recent decades, the Karimojong have faced increasing challenges due to the loss of traditional grazing lands, conflicts with other ethnic groups, and the pressures of population growth. The Karamoja region is one of the driest in Uganda, making the community especially vulnerable to climate change.
Other Tribes
Various other nomadic tribes exist across Africa:
- The Fulani: Pastoral nomads who travel through the grasslands of West Africa.
- The Tuareg: Known for their warlike qualities and fierce independence, inhabiting the Sahara Desert.
- The Himba: Semi-nomadic, pastoral people who breed cattle and goats in Namibia.
- The San: Commonly known as the Bushmen of the Kalahari, with skills to hunt and survive in a seemingly barren desert land.
These tribes, among many others, contribute to the rich tapestry of nomadic cultures in Africa.
The Sahara’s Nomadic People
Although as large as the United States, the Sahara (excluding the Nile valley) is estimated to contain only some 2.5 million inhabitants. Long before recorded history, the Sahara was evidently more widely occupied. Stone artifacts, fossils, and rock art reveal the former human presence, together with that of game animals.
Among some groups, hunting and fishing were subordinated to nomadic pastoralism, after domesticated livestock appeared in the Sahara almost 7,000 years ago. The cattle-herding groups of the Ténéré region of Niger are believed to have been either ancestral Berbers or ancestral Zaghawa; sheep and goats were apparently introduced by groups associated with the Capsian culture of northeastern Africa.
Kerzaz oasis on Wadi Saoura, western Sahara, Algeria.
Increasing aridity in the Sahara is documented in the transition from cattle and horses to camels. Although camels were used in Egypt by the 6th century bce, their prominence in the Sahara dates from only the 3rd century ce. Oasis dwellers in the Sahara were increasingly subject to attack by the Sanhaja (a Berber clan) and other camel-mounted nomads.
Despite considerable cultural diversity, the peoples of the Sahara tend to be categorized as pastoralists, sedentary agriculturalists, or specialists. Pastoralism, always nomadic to some degree, occurs where sufficient scanty pasturage exists, as in the marginal areas, on the mountain borders, and in the slightly moister west. Cattle appear along the southern borders with the Sahel, but sheep, goats, and camels are the mainstays in the desert.
Major pastoral groups include the Regeibat of the northwestern Sahara and the Chaamba of the northern Algerian Sahara. Hierarchical in structure, the larger pastoral groups formerly dominated the desert. The Tuareg (who call themselves Kel Tamasheq) were renowned for their warlike qualities and fierce independence.
