The art of the African continent is often inextricably linked to and influenced by religious and cultural traditions. African culture was not always recorded through written history, so African busts and figurines have been invaluable in offering a glimpse into the history of African cultures and traditions.
Map of Africa showing ethnic and religious distributions
The Role of Figurines in African Cultures
These small statues vary widely in both style and meaning depending on their place of origin and the culture that created them. For example, cultures such as the Yoruba and Fon would often take their art forms to a higher level by using figurines in religious ceremonies. For them, these statues were not simply forms of artwork but also living objects that could help carry out ritual work. African figurines were most often made out of terracotta, which is a type of clay or mud with high levels of calcium oxide.
Groups in central Africa like the Bakongo people believed that their figurines were reflections of themselves. In those parts of the continent, figurines were typically used as a tool to help with rituals and ceremonies. They could be placed in a home or even buried under doorsteps to bring good luck and protection from evil spirits.
Among some African cultures, the figures were used to depict real-world people when they died so that they could have a physical image in their place when interacting with ancestors or spirits from the other world. In contrast, other groups resisted the idea of figurines as a reflection of themselves. The Dogon people in Mali had a negative view of figurines and were more likely to create masks instead. They thought that taking on animalistic forms would allow them to escape human weaknesses that could hold them back from attaining spiritual enlightenment.
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Some cultures also believed that there was a danger in having too many idols and images around. The Igbo people of Nigeria believed figurines had very specific purposes and meanings depending on the region where they were created. The historical art forms that the African continent is known for today was created through a variety of different cultures and beliefs. African figurines were first made thousands of years ago and had an important role in African societies for centuries.
African Busts in the Roman Empire
What can a single sculpted face tell us about race, representation, and empire in the ancient world? The bronze bust of an African child, likely used as a balsamarium (a perfume/incense holder), provides a compelling lens into the diverse and complex cultural landscape of the Roman Empire. Objects like these, found across Roman provinces in Britain, Portugal, Syria, Egypt, and beyond, reveal the interconnectedness of Roman society while highlighting how art constructed ideas of “otherness.”
Roman Empire, c. 117 C.E.
These small, functional objects were also rich in visual messaging, blurring the lines between luxury, exoticism, and identity. This essay explores the significance of the bust’s form, its representation of ethnic identity, and the historical context that informs both its creation and modern interpretations.
The child’s features are rendered with close attention to anatomical specificity: a broad nose, full lips, and textured hair, each carefully incised into the bronze surface to suggest tight curls or braids. These details emphasize a clear ethnic identity. The lid atop the head, fitted with a hinge, confirms the object’s utilitarian function as an incense or perfume container.
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The presence of such an intimate vessel in domestic or funerary contexts indicates that the bust was intended to be both seen and handled, merging functionality with a powerful visual evocation of difference and exoticism. As a balsamarium, this bust served a practical role in everyday Roman life. Crafted using the lost-wax method, its functional design included loops for hanging, a lid, and traces of a pedestal.
However, it was not purely utilitarian; its symbolic function lay in its depiction of a child with distinctly African features. Such representations were common in Roman material culture, appearing on vessels that depicted mythological figures, creatures, boxers, and Africans. The bust’s African features would have marked it as a symbol of “otherness” in the Roman world. Romans often used art to construct and convey identity, defining who belonged and who did not. Representations of Africans in Roman art were not always pejorative; rather, they served to highlight cultural diversity within the empire.
This object raises critical questions: Was it made locally in northern Africa, or was it imported? Without an archaeological context, such questions remain unanswered. Modern interpretations of the bust have been clouded by colonial narratives and racial prejudices. The museum object card describing it as a “Negro head perfume vase” and entries in the RISD Handbook of the Museum of Art (1985), portraying the child as a “negro captive” with a contemptuous glare, reflect colonial biases rather than historical accuracy.
This bronze bust prompts contemporary viewers to confront ideas of race and identity throughout history. While the Roman audience may have viewed the child as an “other,” the nuance and realism of the representation resist simplistic or derogatory interpretations. The Bust of an African Child transcends its role as a functional balsamarium to become a powerful symbol of the complexities of identity and representation in the Roman Empire. Modern viewers must wrestle with both its Roman African context and the colonial narratives that shaped later interpretations. This object compels us to acknowledge Africa’s historical significance and honor its representation within the ancient world.
The Benin Bronzes
The 'Benin Bronzes' (made of brass and bronze) are a group of sculptures which include elaborately decorated cast relief plaques, commemorative heads, animal and human figures, items of royal regalia, and personal ornaments. They were created from at least the 1500s onwards in the West African Kingdom of Benin, by a specialist guild working for the royal court of the Oba (king) in Benin City. The Kingdom also supported guilds working in other materials such as ivory, wood, leather, coral/red stone and textiles, and the term 'Benin Bronzes' is sometimes used to refer to historic objects produced using these other materials.
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Many pieces were commissioned specifically for the ancestral altars of past Obas and Queen Mothers. They were also used in other rituals to honour the ancestors and to validate the accession of a new Oba. Among the most well-known of the Benin Bronzes are the cast brass plaques which once decorated the Benin Royal Palace. These provide an important historical record of the Kingdom of Benin, including both its dynastic and social history, and offer insights into its relationships with neighbouring kingdoms, states and societies. The Benin Bronzes sit within a wider landscape of early West African cast brass traditions, dating back into the medieval period, including from the Kingdom of Ife and from Igbo-Ukwu.
Benin plaque with warriors and attendants
One narrative represented on the brass plaques and forming the subject matter of some sculptures is the Kingdom of Benin's early relationships with Europeans. Trade, diplomatic and missionary contacts between Benin and Portugal developed from the late 1400s. These early connections included exchange visits between the capitals and the courts of Benin and Portugal as the two powers negotiated their new relationship. Later, Portuguese mercenaries fought alongside Edo soldiers in military campaigns that saw the expansion of the Benin Empire; this support is commemorated in figurative brass sculptures.
Over 900 objects from the historic Kingdom of Benin are currently cared for by the British Museum. More than 100 can be seen in a rotating display within the Museum's Africa galleries. Objects from the Kingdom of Benin are lent around the world. The British Museum also houses an important range of archival documentation and photographs relating to the objects from the Kingdom of Benin and their collection histories.
THE BENIN BRONZES: Africa's Most Controversial Art Explained
The Benin Bronzes are an important group of artworks that were created by specialist guilds working for the royal court of the Oba (king) in Benin City, in what is now Nigeria. The Benin Bronzes consist of elaborately decorated cast plaques, commemorative heads, animal and human figures, items of royal regalia, and personal ornaments. They were made from at least the 16th century onwards and were commissioned specifically for the ancestral altars of past Obas and Queen Mothers, as well as for other rituals to honour the ancestors and to validate the accession of a new Oba.
The Benin Bronzes are an important historical record of the Kingdom of Benin, which was a major city state in West Africa from the medieval period. They provide insights into the kingdom's dynastic history, as well as its social history and its relationships with neighbouring kingdoms, states, and societies. One element of this history is the kingdom's early contacts with Europeans, particularly the Portuguese, with whom they developed trade and diplomatic contacts from the 15th century.
Materials and Techniques
The artists who created the Benin Bronzes were highly skilled craftsmen who worked in a variety of materials, including brass, bronze, ivory, coral, leather, and wood. They were commissioned to create a wide range of objects, including:
- Commemorative heads: These were cast bronze heads that were used to commemorate the reigns of past Obas (kings) of Benin. They were placed on ancestral altars and used in various ceremonies to honor the ancestors.
- Plaques: These were elaborate cast brass plaques that adorned the walls of the royal palace in Benin City. They depicted scenes from the history of the Kingdom of Benin, including battles, rituals, and court ceremonies.
- Royal regalia: The artists also created intricate pieces of royal regalia, such as beaded crowns, staffs, and swords. These were used in coronation ceremonies and other royal events.
- Animal and human figures: The artists created a wide range of animal and human figures, both in bronze and ivory. These included depictions of various animals, as well as human figures such as warriors, court officials, and musicians.
- Personal ornaments: The artists also created personal ornaments, such as bracelets, necklaces, and earrings, for members of the royal court.
The artists who created these objects were members of specialist guilds who worked exclusively for the royal court of the Oba of Benin. They were highly skilled and their work was highly valued by the court. The objects they created were not only beautiful and intricate works of art, but also important cultural and historical artifacts that provide insight into the history and culture of the Kingdom of Benin.
However, the Benin Bronzes also have a complicated and controversial history, which includes their theft by British forces in 1897, during a punitive expedition to the Kingdom of Benin, which was then under British colonial rule. The British looted thousands of objects from the royal palace and other locations, including the Benin Bronzes, and many of these objects were subsequently sold to museums and private collectors around the world.
The Controversy
Today, there are over 900 objects from the historic Kingdom of Benin in the collection of the British Museum, over 100 of which can be seen in a permanent changing display within the museum's galleries.
There has been growing pressure on Western museums to return looted cultural artifacts to their countries of origin. This pressure has been led by activists and scholars who argue that many of these artifacts were taken through coercion or force during periods of colonialism and imperialism, and therefore should be returned to their rightful owners.
In response to this pressure, several museums have made pledges to return certain artifacts to their countries of origin. For example, in 2018, French President Emmanuel Macron promised to return African cultural artifacts taken during colonial times to their countries of origin. The British Museum, one of the largest holders of Benin Bronzes, has also stated that it is willing to loan some of its artifacts back to Nigeria, although it has not yet made any commitments to return them permanently.
However, there has also been outrage from some quarters over these pledges and loaning exhibits back to home countries. Critics argue that this sets a dangerous precedent and could lead to the dismantling of museum collections. Others argue that many of these countries lack the resources and expertise to properly care for these artifacts, and that returning them could lead to their further deterioration or loss.
Despite these concerns, some artifacts have been returned. For example, in 2020, Germany returned a Benin Bronze to Nigeria, and the British Museum has also returned certain artifacts to other countries in recent years. However, the process of repatriation can be slow and complicated, involving legal and logistical challenges, as well as negotiations between museums and governments.
While there have been pledges to return certain artifacts to their countries of origin, there is still debate over the merits of repatriation and loaning exhibits back to home countries. Nonetheless, some artifacts have been returned in recent years, and the pressure to return looted cultural artifacts shows no signs of abating.
The history of the Benin Bronzes is a complex and contentious one, but it remains an important part of the cultural heritage of the Kingdom of Benin and of Nigeria. As efforts to repatriate and restitute these objects continue, it is important to recognize their significance and to ensure that they are properly cared for and protected, both in their current locations and when they are returned to Nigeria.
The Influence of African Art on Alberto Giacometti
Alberto Giacometti continually engaged with African artists’ creations from his early career through his later model-based work of the 1940s through 1960s. He didn’t seek to understand their aesthetic perspectives or their works’ meaning. Instead, what compelled him was a personal interpretation of African arts as reality-revealing archetypes:
Any of us resembles much more an Egyptian sculpture than any other sculpture ever made. And it’s the same thing for exotic arts, for African or Oceanic sculpture. People like them because they think them entirely invented, and because they refute the outside world, the common view on reality…Style gives us the most accurate vision.
The earliest sculptures he created in Paris drew from African artworks that he viewed in ethnographic museums or in personal collections. These displays were the direct result of European colonial conquest and exploration across Africa. Brought to Europe by the thousands since the 1870s in violent, bureaucratic, or even mundane ways, African artworks and weapons were often displayed to shore up racist conceptions of savagery or primitiveness. First influenced by colonial geography, Western definitions of “art” further refined the “African art canon” to favor wooden sculptures or masks from Western and Central Africa.
The impact of this narrow “African art canon” is seen in 1927’s Spoon Woman and The Couple, as is Giacometti’s tendency to select elements and interpretations of African artworks. Scholars have linked Spoon Woman’s scoop-like form to an oversized ceremonial ladle that Dan communities in Côte d’Ivoire once honored a generous woman with during festivals.
Ladle, Shield, Reliquiary Figure
The pointed oval-shaped woman in The Couple suggests a shield, like this Ugandan example, or a Kota-style mbulu ngulu sculpture from Gabon. Set atop containers of relics (bones), these guardian figures helped people connect with their ancestors through prayer. Giacometti owned an mbulu ngulu similar to the one now at the CMA; both share their shape, proportions, and parallel cheek strips with The Couple’s female figure. Unlike his artistic peers in Paris, such as Pablo Picasso, Giacometti focused his collecting efforts on books rather than artworks: many of these are linked to his drawing and sculpture practices.
Sketching from Books
While he often spoke or wrote about trips to the Louvre and the Trocadéro Ethnographic Museum to see Egyptian or sub-Saharan African art, books had fueled Giacometti’s appetite for copy-sketching since childhood: “I see myself…returning later in the evening to my studio in Paris, leafing through books and copying this or that Egyptian sculpture…”
Through his book collection, Giacometti became acquainted with artworks made in places he never visited. He based many of his sketches of African artworks on photographic illustrations from art, anthropology, ethnography, and Surrealist publications. He often couldn’t read the accompanying texts, as he primarily knew Italian and French. Focused on appearances and links with modern European art, many of his favorite books were for art lovers, not scholars, such as art historian Hedwig Fechheimer’s illustrated German volumes on pharaonic Egypt. Art from Egypt’s Amarna period (Dynasty 18) particularly filled Giacometti’s sketchbooks. Like the tradition-shattering European Surrealist movement, the Amarna style rapidly shifted pharaonic Egyptian art.
Talatat: Portrait of Nefertiti
A profile portrait of Queen Nefertiti blends realistic and stylized elements, juxtaposing her narrowed eyes and pointed facial features with her curved neck and the rounded mass of her hair (or wig). Similar contrasts echo in Giacometti’s small busts and portrait heads like Bust of Annette VIII. In a painted Amarna-style stone relief, a male figure steps forward on slender feet. Giacometti duplicated this inverted V-stance in his copy-sketches of Egyptian art, later reinterpreting it in his Walking Woman sculptures of the 1930s and the Walking Man series of the 1950s and 1960s.
The illustrations in publications by members of his social circle further transformed African arts into icons for Giacometti to interpret. These included “primitive” or “tribal” art books by art dealer Paul Guillaume (along with CMA art educator Thomas Munro), art historian Carl Einstein, and writer-ethnographer Michel Leiris. A member of France’s Dakar-Djibouti Expedition (a colonial collecting and ethnography expedition between 1931 and 1933), Leiris frequently contributed to the Surrealist publication Minotaure. His photo-essays on masks from French Sudan (now Mali and Burkina Faso) included a satimbe mask similar to one now in Cleveland.
Spreads from Minotaure
When viewed this way, the satimbe mask becomes a sculpture of a thin-limbed, curvy woman on a blocky base, much like Giacometti’s later bronzes.
Giacometti’s unusual way of rendering the human body as flattened, colorless, and elongated reflects how he viewed African artists’ rendering of the body as depicted and transformed through the lenses of European photographers. Studying photographs of African arts prompted him to make visual translations that affected his sculptural practice and possibly encouraged his near-obsessive focus on the human form and head. Echoing anthropometric-style photographs of African individuals and sculptures, many of his later drawings and sculptures (especially those called “Man” or “Woman”) depicted unclothed, hairless bodies or heads in frontal or side views.
Where to See African Sculpture
If you're interested in seeing African sculpture up close, there are many places where you can do so. Many museums around the world have extensive collections of African art, including sculpture, and there are also many galleries and exhibitions that focus specifically on African sculpture.
- Zeitz Museum of Contemporary Art Africa (Cape Town, South Africa): is Situated in a repurposed grain silo, the Zeitz Museum of Contemporary Art Africa (MOCAA) is the largest museum of contemporary African art on the continent. MOCAA exhibits cutting-edge works from established and emerging artists, offering a platform to explore themes such as identity, social change, and globalization. Its striking architecture and thought-provoking installations make it a must-visit destination for art enthusiasts.
- Egyptian Museum (Cairo): is home to one of the world's most extensive collections of ancient Egyptian artefacts. Housing over 120,000 items, including the iconic treasures of Tutankhamun, the museum provides a fascinating insight into the grandeur and mysteries of ancient Egypt, from intricate carvings to mesmerizing statues.
- Museum of Black Civilizations (Dakar, Senegal): was opened in 2018, the Museum of Black Civilizations in Dakar celebrates Africa's vast cultural heritage and its diaspora. The museum showcases over 14,000 artworks and artefacts, spanning various regions and time periods. Its exhibits explore the historical achievements, contributions, and resilience of black civilizations globally, emphasizing the interconnectedness of African cultures.
Types of African Sculpture
African sculpture encompasses many different types and styles, each with its own unique characteristics and cultural significance. Some of the most common types of African sculpture include:
- Figurative sculpture: This type of sculpture depicts human or animal figures, and can be highly realistic or abstract.
- Mask sculpture: Masks are an important part of many African cultures, and can be used for ritual or ceremonial purposes.
- Relief sculpture: Relief sculptures are typically carved into a flat surface, and can be highly detailed and intricate.
- Abstract sculpture: Abstract sculptures can take many forms, from simple geometric shapes to more complex and organic forms.
Materials Used in African Sculpture
African sculpture can be made from a wide range of materials, depending on the region and the intended purpose of the sculpture. Some of the most common materials used in African sculpture include:
- Wood: Wood is one of the most common materials used in African sculpture, and can be carved into highly detailed and intricate forms.
- Stone: Stone sculptures are typically more durable than those made from wood, and can be highly polished and detailed.
- Bronze: Bronze sculptures are often used in West Africa, and are known for their intricate detail and realistic depictions of people and animals.
- Clay: Clay sculptures are common in many African cultures, and can be used for both functional and decorative purposes.
Symbolism in African Sculpture
African sculpture is often imbued with deep cultural and spiritual significance and can be used to convey a wide range of meanings and messages. Many African sculptures are symbols of power, fertility, or protection, while others are used to represent important figures or events.
| Culture | Sculpture | Symbolism |
|---|---|---|
| Akan (Ghana) | Akua'ba | Fertility and good fortune for women trying to conceive |
| Benin Empire | Bronze Sculptures | Depictions of the royal family and other important figures |
