The Pharaoh During the Time of Moses in Egypt: Unraveling the Mystery

Nov 07, 2025 0

The identity of the pharaoh during the time of Moses and the Exodus from Egypt has been a subject of intense debate and speculation for centuries. The Bible refers to various pharaohs of Egypt, but does not explicitly name the pharaoh of the Exodus in the Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. This has led to numerous theories and interpretations, with scholars and historians proposing different candidates based on biblical, archaeological, and historical evidence.

Map of Egypt showing its location in North Africa.

Biblical References to Pharaohs

The Bible makes reference to various pharaohs (Hebrew: פַּרְעֹה‎, Parʿō) of Egypt. Genesis 12:10-20 states that Abram moved to Egypt to escape a period of famine in Canaan. Abram worries that the unnamed Pharaoh will kill him and take away his wife and half-sister Sarai, so Abram tells her to say only that she is his sister. They are eventually summoned to meet Pharaoh, but God sends plagues because he wishes to marry her and she is already married. Discovering that Sarai is also Abram's wife, he releases her and orders Abram to take his belongings and return to Canaan.

In the Book of Exodus, the Israelites, who are the descendants of Jacob's sons, are living in Goshen under a new Pharaoh, who oppresses them. He forces them to work long hours to build Pithom and Pi-Ramesses, making mortar and baking bricks. He also issues a decree to kill their newborn males to reduce their numbers due to concerns about their growing population. Moses, a Levite, is saved from this decree by his mother, who instructs his sister Miriam to watch over him after he is placed in a reed basket in the Nile. He is discovered and adopted by Pharaoh's daughter. Miriam asks the princess if she would like an Israelite woman to help nurse the child, and returns with Moses' mother, who is then able to raise her child under royal protection. Later, Moses is returned to Pharaoh's daughter and raised as part of the royal household.

Proposed Pharaohs of the Exodus

Numerous Pharaohs have been proposed as contemporary with the Exodus. Here are some of the most prominent theories:

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Khufu (26th century BC): Some connect Haman with Hemiunu, thereby placing the Exodus during the reign of Khufu.
Pepi I (24th-23rd century BC): Emmanuel Anati has argued that the Exodus should be placed between the 24th and the 21st century BC and that Pepi I should be identified as the pharaoh of the Exodus. This theory has not gained acceptance and has received strong criticism from Israeli archaeologist Israel Finkelstein and American Egyptologist James K. Hoffmeier.
Merenre (23rd century BC): Gerald Aardsma proposed that the Exodus occurred in 2450 BC by extending the 480 years mentioned in 1 Kings 6:1 to 1,480 years, arguing that the figure of 480 years was a scribal corruption. He used his own chronology, which places 6th dynasty in the 25th century BC, and identified the pharaoh of the Exodus as Merenre Nemtyemsaf II.
Dedumose II (died c. 1690 BC): Though Rohl's hypothesis that Exodus occurred during the Middle Kingdom follows the Samaritans' chronology, according to which the Israelites settled in Canaan in the 17th century BC, Rohl shortened the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt by almost 300 years with his New Chronology.
Thutmose II (1493-1479 BC): Alfred Edersheim proposes in Old Testament Bible History that Thutmose II is best qualified to be the pharaoh of Exodus because he had a brief, prosperous reign that suddenly collapsed without a legitimate heir. His widow Hatshepsut then became first regent (for Thutmose III, his son by his concubine Iset, before becoming Pharaoh herself.
Amenhotep II (1427-1401 BC): Amenhotep II claimed to have brought tens of thousands of slaves from the Levant to Egypt. Associates for Biblical Research asserts that these slaves were taken to compensate for the loss of Jewish slaves as a result of the Exodus.
Thutmose IV (1401-1391 BC): Wayne A. Mitchell and David F. Lappin proposed Thutmose IV as the Exodus Pharaoh based on chronological and astronomical considerations.
Akhenaten (1353-1349 BC): In his book Moses and Monotheism, Sigmund Freud argued that Moses had been an Atenist priest of Akhenaten who was forced to leave Egypt, along with his followers, following the pharaoh's death.
Ramesses II (c. 1279-1213 BC): Many popular films about the Exodus, including Cecil DeMille’s The Ten Commandments, Dreamworks’ The Prince of Egypt and Ridley Scott’s Exodus: Gods and Kings favor Ramesses II.
Merneptah (c. 1213-1203 BC): Isaac Asimov in Guide to the Bible makes a case for Merneptah to be the pharaoh of the Exodus. Recently, Semiticist Richard C. Steiner has proposed Merneptah as the Pharaoh of the Exodus, based on a rabbinic midrash.
Setnakhte (c. 1189-1186 BC): Igor P. Gavrilov has proposed Setnakhte as the pharaoh of the Exodus.
Ramesses III (c. 1186-1155 BC): Gary A. Rendsburg has argued for Ramesses III as the pharaoh of the Exodus.
Bakenranef (c. 730-720 BC): Manetho and Chaeremon of Alexandria, both quoted by Josephus in Against Apion, state that the Jews were expelled from Egypt by a pharaoh named "Ramses", son of another pharaoh named "Amenophis". The first-century c.e. Roman historian Tacitus identified him as Bakenranef.

Is There Evidence of the Exodus at the Great Sphinx?

The 1446 BC Exodus Date and its Implications

There are two major views for the date of the exodus; the early date of 1446 BC and the late date of around 1225 BC. Though one cannot be completely sure of the date, most biblical scholars hold to the 1446 view.

1 Kings 6:1 states that the construction of Solomon’s temple began 480 years after the Exodus. Since Solomon’s reign is widely recognized to date to the middle part of the 10th century b.c.e., with the construction of Solomon’s temple beginning in 967 b.c.e., the Exodus would have occurred in 1446 b.c.e.

Judges 11:26 states that at the time of the judge Jephthah-circa 1100 b.c.e.-the Israelites had dwelt in the land of Canaan for about "three hundred years" (thus putting their arrival at around 1400 b.c.e.).

Exodus 2:23 and Acts 7:13 both state that Moses lived in exile in Midian forty years while the pharaoh of the oppression was still alive. The only pharaohs who ruled forty years or more were Thutmose III (1504-1450 BC) and Rameses II (1279-1213 BC). Rameses’ reign has already been shown unlikely, and Thutmose II fits with the 1446 BC view of the exodus.

John Garstang, who excavated Jericho in the 1930s AD, dated the destruction of Jericho around 1400 BC. Jericho was the first city that the Israelites conquered under the leadership of Joshua when they entered the land of Canaan. Adding forty years to Garstang’s date (to account for Israel’s wandering before entering Canaan) puts the exodus shortly before 1440 BC.

The Amarna tablets (ca. 1400 BC) are a collection of over three hundred diplomatic letters that record correspondence between the Pharaoh of Egypt and Egyptian representatives in the land of Canaan. These letters speak of a period of chaos caused by the Habiru-very likely the Hebrews-during the late 1400s BC.

Furthermore, the "Dream Stele" of Thutmose IV (1419-1386 BC), son of Amenhotep II, states that he was not the legitimate successor to the throne. According to the "Dream Stele," the god Har-em-akht promised the throne to Thutmose IV on the condition that he restore the exposure of the Sphinx, which apparently had been covered by sand. This promise implies that Thutmose IV was not Amenhotep II’s firstborn son, who would have been the legitimate heir. The firstborn son had evidently died prior to taking the throne of Egypt. This would agree with Ex. 12:29, which says the pharaoh’s firstborn son was killed along with all other firstborns during the Passover.

The Dream Stele of Thutmose IV between the paws of the Great Sphinx of Giza.

Key Figures and Pharaoh Candidates

Several figures are central to the narrative of the Exodus, and their potential connections to specific pharaohs are often explored:

Hatshepsut: Some theories suggest that Hatshepsut was the Princess who adopted Moses. She was the daughter of Thutmose I, and wife of her half-brother Thutmose II. The Bible says the Princess had compassion on the baby hidden in the basket in the river, but there was also a more self-interested motive in adopting Moses.. the desire to maintain her rank and power in the future as the mother of a future Pharaoh.
Thutmose III: It has been suggested that Thutmose III, Moses' younger (adoptive) half-brother, was the one who tried to kill Moses, and from whom Moses fled.
Amenhotep II: Given the 1446 BC date for the Exodus, Amenhotep II is a strong candidate for the pharaoh of the Exodus. Historical records state that for several years after 1446, Amenhotep II was unable to carry out any invasions or extensive military operations. This would seem to be very strange behavior for a pharaoh who hoped to equal his father’s legacy of no less than seventeen military campaigns in nineteen years. But this is exactly what one would expect from a pharaoh who had lost almost all his cavalry, chariots, and army at the Red Sea.

The City of Raamses and Anachronisms

Exodus 1:11 mentions the Israelites building the city of Raamses. This has led many scholars to believe that Rameses II (1279-1213 BC) was the Pharaoh of the exodus. During his reign Rameses II did indeed build the city of Pi-Ramesses. It became one of the largest cities "of all time" (i.e. of all time in the ancient world before 330 bc). It was built on the site which had formerly been "Avaris", the capital city of the Hyksos during their rule of northern Egypt.

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However, the reference to Raamses could be an anachronism. When the book of Exodus was originally written Exodus 1:11 contained the original name of the site, but at a later date after the name of the city was changed to Rameses, so the Scripture also was changed to Raamses. There are other examples of anachronisms in the Bible, such as Genesis 11:28, which mentions "Ur of the Chaldees," even though the Chaldeans did not go to Ur until about 600 BC.

The Soleb Inscription and the Knowledge of Yahweh

The Soleb Inscription was produced in the reign of Amenhotep III 1415-1377 bc. It mentions the enemies of Egypt to the north of Egypt from "the land of the nomads of Yahweh", and was produced either while the Israelites were 40 years as "nomads" in the Sinai wilderness or shortly thereafter.

If the Exodus happened after the reign of Amenhotep III then this pharaoh knew the name of the God of the Israelites before Moses knew! That sounds unlikely. Because of the Soleb Inscription Amenhotep III cannot be the pharaoh who died, referred to in Exodus 2:23 and 4:19, because according to the Soleb Inscription Amenhotep III already knows the name of Yahweh. Neither he nor the pharaoh following his reign could have said "Who is Yahweh that I should obey his voice?" Besides that, the Soleb Inscription clearly shows that the Shasu, the Israelite nomads, are no longer in Egypt because they have their own land. This means that Exodus 2:23 and 4:19 must be referring to a previous pharaoh who reigned a long time.

The Memphis Stele of Amenhotep II

The Memphis Stele of Amenhotep II states that in November of his seventh year Amenhotep II raided the Levant. This is a peculiar time to launch an attack: usually an attack would begin in the spring to give enough time of good summer weather to defeat the enemy. But this attack was different; because Amenhotep II returned to Egypt with "89,600" slaves. The natural conclusion is that this gathering of slaves was the main purpose of his attack: it was a "slave raid".

Chronological Considerations

One of the difficulties in identifying the pharaohs of the exodus is that not only is the Bible vague on these pharaohs, but modern historians cannot agree on the dates and reigns of the Pharaohs and have repeatedly changed their dating system. Therefore, be aware that the dates given in this article may not match those found in other sources.

Historians divide the New Kingdom into three different dynasties. The first is known as the 18th Dynasty, or the Thutmosid Dynasty (dynasties were named after the ruling family); this dynasty ruled Egypt up until around 1300 b.c.e.

The table below summarizes the reigns of key pharaohs from the 18th Dynasty, based on the High Chronology:

Pharaoh	Reign (BC)
Ahmose I	1570-1546
Thutmose I	1524-1518
Hatshepsut	1498-1483
Thutmose III	1504-1450
Amenhotep II	1453-1419
Thutmose IV	1419-1386
Amenhotep III	1415-1377
Akhenaten	1353-1349

The transition in the biblical text from referring to pharaohs by the title "Pharaoh" (Hebrew: פַּרְעֹה) without their individual names, may follow the Egyptian convention of referring to pharaohs only by their titles. This was only broken by the middle of the 21st Dynasty by Pharaoh Siamun, becoming standard at the time of Shoshenq I, who is incidentally the first pharaoh to be mentioned by name in the biblical text.