Interactions between people and wildlife have long had an impact on biodiversity.
Snake charming is the practice of appearing to hypnotize a snake (often a cobra) by playing and waving around an instrument called a pungi. A typical performance may also include handling the snakes or performing other seemingly dangerous acts, as well as other street performance staples, like juggling and sleight of hand.
In Morocco, snake charming is an attraction in the country's growing tourism industry.
Ancient Egypt was home to one form of snake charming, though the practice as it exists today likely arose in India. It eventually spread throughout South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa.
The earliest evidence for snake charming comes from ancient Egyptian sources. Charmers there mainly acted as magicians and healers.
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The sacred role of snakes may be related to a traditional association with health and eternity in some cultures and many species are under pressure from exploitation as a result.
In Morocco the activity is mostly restricted to key tourist areas, such as Marrakech. Practitioners may still be found in souks in the south of the country but not in the north, unlike 100 years ago.
Modern-day snake charmers are canny businessmen. As soon as they saw me pull my camera from my bag, two men rushed towards me, with not one, not two, but four slender serpents in their hands, holding them out as though they were feather boas, ready to drape around my neck. And drape them they did, despite my terrified cries of "No, no, I just want to take a picture." It's obvious in hindsight: you can't stand at a safe distance and take a few happy snaps of a spectacle like this. You are expected to be part of it.
It is difficult to monitor changes in snake populations over time because of their elusive behaviour.
Quantifying the impact of traditional activities on biodiversity is always helpful for decision making in conservation.
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Traditional activities that potentially threaten biodiversity represent a challenge to conservationists as they try to reconcile the cultural dimensions of such activities.
Here's a look at the issues surrounding snake charming in Morocco.
The History and Tradition of Snake Charming in Morocco
One example of this is the population decline in snakes used in snake charming, a practice that began in Morocco c. 500 years ago. The Aissawas were healers and custodians of knowledge about the local flora and fauna.
The Aissawas were healers and custodians of knowledge about the local flora and fauna. They used snakes in traditional medicine and exhibitions in market places (souks) throughout the country, inspiring the use of snakes in spectacles to attract tourists.
The practice was introduced there 500 years ago by the religious order the Aissawas, and is now an attraction in the country's growing tourism industry.
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Traditionally all Aissawas hunted for snakes used in charming but now only some custodians of the traditional culture are snake hunters; others, including many newcomers, buy snakes directly from hunters.
In Marrakech (the stronghold for snake charming) Aissawas have been organized into five closed groups, each consisting, on average, of 14 members (range 12-17) since the 1940s.
Snakes have always both fascinated and repelled people, and the reported use of snakes in magic and religious activities is global.
Healers and indigenous peoples have collected wildlife for centuries but in the past harvests were relatively sustainable and species survival was not threatened.
The early 20th century proved something of a golden age for snake charmers. Governments promoted the practice to draw tourism, and snake charmers were often sent overseas to perform at cultural festivals and for private patrons.
Many snake charmers live a wandering existence, visiting towns and villages on market days and during festivals.
North African charmers usually set up in open-air markets and souks for their performances.
Snake charming is typically an inherited profession. Most would-be charmers thus begin learning the practice at a young age from their fathers. Members of the Sapera or Sapuakela castes, snake charmers have little other choice of profession.
In fact, entire settlements of snake charmers and their families exist in some parts of India and neighbouring countries.
In Bangladesh, snake charmers are typically members of the nomadic ethnic group Bede.
The Snakes
The target species for snake charming in Morocco is N. haje, and as the least common wild species of those used by snake charmers it is also the most expensive species in the trade between hunters and charmers.
Snakes used in such spectacles suffer from high mortality; when they show obvious signs of ill health they are disposed of and replaced by freshly caught individuals.
Egyptian Cobra (Naja haje)
Morocco has a species-rich reptilian fauna, including 27 snake species. In a 2010 national-level assessment of extinction risk of amphibians and reptiles, based on IUCN criteria, snakes accounted for a high number of threatened species (18.5%), with the two species commonly used for snake charming, the Egyptian cobra Naja haje and the puff adder Bitis arietans, categorized as Vulnerable.
For exhibition purposes they selectively remove the largest specimens from the wild (i.e. those that could have the highest reproductive output).
The focal species for snake charming, the Egyptian cobra Naja haje, is undergoing both range and population declines.
Snakes used for charming have a short life expectancy because of improper care and the high mortality of defanged individuals. When the snakes become unhealthy they are killed and skinned, and their meat is fed to other snakes.
Eight species (four venomous and four non-venomous) were used in their performances. Of these, four species (B. arietans, Hemorrhois hippocrepis, Malpolon monspessulanus, and N. haje) were commonly used; the other four were Cerastes cerastes, Daboia mauritanica, Psammophis schokari and Rhagerhis moilensis.
Traditionally, snake charmers use snakes that they have captured themselves in the wild. The exact species of serpents used varies by region. In India, the Indian cobra is preferred, though some charmers may also use Russell's vipers.
Western-style snake charmers use pythons and boa constrictors for their performances as they are not venomous.
The Practice
During a performance, snake charmers may take a number of precautions. The charmer typically sits out of biting range and the snake is usually sluggish due to starvation or dehydration and reluctant to attack anyway. More drastic means of protection include removing the reptile's fangs or venom glands, drugging the snake, or even sewing the snake's mouth shut.
For safety, some North African snake charmers stitch closed the mouth of their performing snakes, leaving just enough opening for the animal to be able to move its tongue in and out.
Methods of dealing with the fangs include expert surgical removal of both the fangs and replacement fangs, which has been done by some Native American and African snake charmers.
Although snakes are able to sense sound, they lack the outer ear that would enable them to hear the music.
Once the performer finds a satisfactory location to set up, he sets his pots and baskets about him (often with the help of a team of assistants who may be his apprentices) and sits cross-legged on the ground in front of a closed pot or basket. He removes the lid, then begins playing a flute-like instrument made from a gourd, known as a been or pungi.
In the Western world, snake charming is very different.
Despite a sort of golden age in the 20th century, snake charming is today dying out. This is due to a variety of factors, chief among them is the enforcement of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 in India banning ownership of snakes.
The practice is no longer legal in India following changes to the Wildlife Protection Act.
Snake-charmer performances still happen in other Asian nations such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Malaysia.
Snake charmers typically walk the streets holding their serpents in baskets or pots hanging from a bamboo pole slung over the shoulder. Charmers cover these containers with cloths between performances. Dress in India, Pakistan and neighbouring countries is generally the same: long hair, a white turban, earrings, and necklaces of shells or beads.
Local market prices for exploited species can serve as a surrogate for species population density in the wild and as a measure of sustainability in harvesting.
Snake charming was banned in India in the 1970s, however, it's still prevalent in rural communities.
Snake Charmer - Randall Standridge, Grade 2.5
Impact on Snake Populations
As a consequence wild snake populations may be threatened by overexploitation.
The impact of hunting and collecting on snake populations has rarely been studied and remains largely unreported, and declines in snake populations are not receiving the same level of attention as, for example, those in amphibians or marine turtles.
Recent socio-economic-induced changes in human populations, however, such as those related to tourism development, long considered a clean industry with limited or no negative environmental impacts, are now affecting biodiversity.
Snake Charmers in Marrakech's Djemaa el-Fna
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