Ancient Egypt, an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa, was concentrated along the northern reaches of the Nile River in Egypt. The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and it developed over the next three millennia. For most parts of its long history, ancient Egypt was unified under one government. The main military concern for the nation was to keep enemies out.
The arid plains and deserts surrounding Egypt were inhabited by nomadic tribes who occasionally tried to raid or settle in the fertile Nile River valley. Nevertheless, the great expanses of the desert formed a barrier that protected the river valley and was almost impossible for massive armies to cross. The Egyptians built fortresses and outposts along the borders east and west of the Nile Delta, in the Eastern Desert, and in Nubia to the south. Small garrisons could prevent minor incursions, but if a large force was detected, a message was sent for the main army corps.
The history of ancient Egypt is divided into three kingdoms and two intermediate periods. During the three kingdoms, Egypt was unified under one government. During the intermediate periods (the periods of time between kingdoms) government control was in the hands of the various nomes (provinces within Egypt) and various foreigners. The geography of Egypt served to isolate the country and allowed it to thrive. This circumstance set the stage for many of Egypt's military conquests. They enfeebled their enemies by using small projectile weapons, like bows and arrows.
Egypt exhibited knowledge of the outside world and worked to put tactical and operational intelligence into use in their campaigns. The Assyrians in particular seem to have mastered the art of not only gathering military intelligence but also analyzing it.
Like many other areas of life, this topic is somewhat theologized in the Old Testament. The texts about military intelligence fit into this pattern of placing far greater prominence on trust in YHWH than in their own strength or knowledge. Israel provides a good test case of what the gathering of military intelligence looks like for a smaller kingdom: the acquisition of strategic information from foreign nations was much more limited, but many stories in the Hebrew Bible exhibit the importance attributed to tactical and operational intelligence.
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Military intelligence is an important part of warfare, but it has generally been under appreciated throughout history. This was particularly true for the ancient Near East, where kings focused more on their victories in battles than on their preparations for battle. Military intelligence can be divided into three categories:
- Spying: Gathering strategic information about the enemy, generally away from the battlefield.
- Scouting: Gathering operational information for a campaign and tactical information near the battlefield.
- Divine Guidance: Seeking guidance from divine beings about their enemies through such means as divination.
The time in the wilderness lays the foundation for the theme of scouting in the Hebrew Bible. YHWH was initially responsible for scouting ahead of the Israelites through the Ark of the Covenant (Num 10:33). When the Israelites drew near to Canaan, he commanded that the Israelites themselves scout out the land, perhaps as a kind of test. While they were able to gather important information about Canaan, they failed the test.
Like many other areas of warfare, the goal for Israel was never merely military success. The premier example of this was the law of the king that prohibited the king from accumulating a large army or making alliances with foreign nations through marriage (Deut 17:14-17). This text serves as the basis for condemning Solomon’s military expansionism.
The Old Kingdom: Foundations of Military Organization
The Old Kingdom was one of the greatest times in Egypt's history. Because of this affluence, it allowed the government to stabilize and in turn organize a functioning military. At first, during the Old Kingdom, there was no professional army in Egypt; the governor of each nome (administrative division) had to raise his own volunteer army. Then, all the armies would come together under the Pharaoh to battle. Old Kingdom soldiers were equipped with many types of weapons, including shields, spears, cudgels, maces, daggers, and bows and arrows. The most common Egyptian weapon was the bow and arrow.
During the Old Kingdom, a single-arched bow was often used. This type of bow was difficult to draw, and there was less draw length.
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As early as the Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC) Egypt used specific military units, with military hierarchy appearing in the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BC).
The Middle Kingdom: Standing Armies and Expansion
The pharaoh Mentuhotep II commanded military campaigns south as far as the Second Cataract in Nubia, which had gained its independence during the First Intermediate Period. From the Twelfth Dynasty onwards, pharaohs often kept well-trained standing armies, which formed the basis of larger forces raised for defense against invasion.
Before the New Kingdom, the Egyptian military was mainly aquatic, and the high ranks were composed of elite middle-class Egyptians. Egyptian troops were transported by naval vessels as early as the Late Old Kingdom. By the later intermediate period, the navy was highly sophisticated and used complicated naval maneuvers, such as Kamose's campaign against the Hyksos in the harbor of Avaris (c.
The Second Intermediate Period: Hyksos Invasion and Military Transformation
After Merneferre Ay of the mid-13th dynasty fled his palace, a west Asian tribe called the Hyksos sacked Memphis (the Egyptians' capital city) and claimed dominion over Upper and Lower Egypt. The Hyksos, Asiatics from the Northeast, set up a fortified capital at Avaris. The Egyptians were trapped at this time; their government had collapsed. They were sandwiched between the Hyksos in the north and the Kushite Nubians in the south.
The Hyksos have been credited with bringing to Egypt the horse, the Ourarit (chariot), and the composite bow-tools that drastically altered the way Egypt's military functioned. The composite bow, which allowed for more accuracy and greater kill distance with arrows, along with horses and chariots eventually assisted the Egyptian military in ousting the Hyksos from Egypt, beginning when Seqenenre Tao became ruler of Thebes and opened a struggle that claimed his own life in battle.
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The Hyksos Invasion: Chariots & Egypt’s Age of Chaos #Hyksos #AncientEgypt #MilitaryInnovation
The New Kingdom: Professional Soldiers and Foreign Conquests
In the New Kingdom new threats emerged. However, the military contributions of the Hyksos allowed Egypt to defend themselves from these foreign invasions successfully. The Hittites hailed from further northeast than had been previously encountered. They attempted to conquer Egypt, but were defeated and a peace treaty was made. Also, the mysterious Sea Peoples invaded the entire ancient Near East during this time. The Sea Peoples caused many problems, but ultimately the military was strong enough at this time to prevent a collapse of the government.
Before the New Kingdom, the Egyptian armies were composed of conscripted peasants and artisans, who would then mass under the banner of the pharaoh. These changes also caused changes in the role of the military in Egyptian society, and so during the New Kingdom, the Egyptian military changed from levy troops into a firm organization of professional soldiers.
Conquests of foreign territories, like Nubia, required a permanent force to be garrisoned abroad. The encounter with other powerful Near Eastern kingdoms like the Mitanni, the Hittites, and later the Assyrians and Babylonians, made it necessary for the Egyptians to conduct campaigns far from home. Over 4,000 infantry of an army corps were organized into 20 companies between 200 and 250 men each. The Egyptian army is estimated to have had over 100,000 soldiers at the time of Ramesses II c. 1300 BC.
There were also companies of Libyans, Nubians, Canaanite and Sherdens (Greeks) who served in the Egyptian army.
During the Egyptian conquest, the Pharaoh would divide his army into two parts, the North and the South. They would then be further divided into four more armies named after the Egyptian gods Ra, Amen, Ptah, and Sutekh (of all the armies the Pharaoh would align himself with Amen). From there he would pick a commander-in-chief, generally a prince of the royal house who would then pick captains to enforce orders given down the chain of command. During war times, the commander-in-chief was given the job of selecting their captains, who were usually lower-ranking princes of the royal house. They generally achieved these positions using tools of bribery and appealing to the interest courts. Another major factor in choosing both officers and captains was the degree of education they received; most officials were oftentimes diplomatists with extensive educational backgrounds.
Each regiment in the Egyptian army could have been identified by the weapon they carried: archers, lancers, spearmen, and infantry. The lancers not only carried their long-range weapon, the lance but also a dagger on their belt and a short-curved sword. Depicted in Egyptian art is a cane or wand-type object that has been assigned to each fifth member in a group.
Infantry troops were partially conscripted, voluntary. Egyptian soldiers worked for pay, both natives and mercenaries. Of mercenary troops, Nubians were used beginning in the late Old Kingdom, Asiatic maryannu troops were used in the Middle and New Kingdoms, the Sherden, Libyans, and the "Na'arn" were used in the Ramesside Period.
As early as the New Kingdom (c. During the Egyptian conquest, the Pharaoh would divide his army into two parts, the North and the South. They would then be further divided into four more armies named after the Egyptian gods Ra, Amen, Ptah, and Sutekh (of all the armies the Pharaoh would align himself with Amen). From there he would pick a commander-in-chief, generally a prince of the royal house who would then pick captains to enforce orders given down the chain of command. During war times, the commander-in-chief was given the job of selecting their captains, who were usually lower-ranking princes of the royal house. They generally achieved these positions using tools of bribery and appealing to the interest courts. Another major factor in choosing both officers and captains was the degree of education they received; most officials were oftentimes diplomatists with extensive educational backgrounds.
Each regiment in the Egyptian army could have been identified by the weapon they carried: archers, lancers, spearmen, and infantry. The lancers not only carried their long-range weapon, the lance but also a dagger on their belt and a short-curved sword. Depicted in Egyptian art is a cane or wand-type object that has been assigned to each fifth member in a group.
A military standard is the code or sign used to signify a standard among a group of militarized individuals to show distinction from other groups but not from one another. This only became prevalent in armies that were large enough to require division to be better controlled. This recognized division started as early as the Unification period in Egypt in the Proto-dynastic period (Faulkner). The most common symbol in Egyptian military history would be the semi-circular fan sitting on top of a large, long staff as shown by the sunshade hieroglyph. This symbol represented the Egyptian naval fleet. During later dynasties, such as the 18th dynasty, it was the most common military standard symbol-particularly under the reign of Queen Hatshepsut. Another type of standard was the rectangular mounted on a long and large staff.
Infantry troops were partially conscripted, voluntary. Egyptian soldiers worked for pay, both natives and mercenaries. Of mercenary troops, Nubians were used beginning in the late Old Kingdom, Asiatic maryannu troops were used in the Middle and New Kingdoms, the Sherden, Libyans, and the "Na'arn" were used in the Ramesside Period.
The principal weapon of the Egyptian army was the bow and arrow; it was transformed into a formidable weapon with the introduction by the Hyksos of the composite bow.
Chariotry and Naval Warfare
Chariotry, the backbone of the Egyptian army, was introduced into ancient Egypt from Western Asia at the end of the Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC) / the beginning of the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1069 BC). Charioteers were drawn from the upper classes in Egypt. Chariots were generally used as a mobile platform from which to use projectile weapons, and were generally pulled by two horses and manned by two charioteers; a driver who carried a shield, and a man with a bow or javelin. Chariots also had infantry support.
By the time of Qadesh, the chariot arm was at the height of its development. It was designed for speed and maneuverability, being lightweight and delicate in appearance. Its offensive power was in its capacity to rapidly turn, wheel and repeatedly charge, penetrating the enemy line and functioning as a mobile firing platform that afforded the fighting crewmen the opportunity to shoot many arrows from the composite bow. The chariot corps served as an independent arm but were attached to the infantry corps. At Qadesh, there were 25 vehicles per company. Many of the lighter vehicles were retained for scouting and communication duties.
Chariots are best defined as horsedrawn vehicles with two spoked wheels that require their drivers and passengers to stand whilst in motion’. Simply described, the chariot has been around for centuries in the near East not only showing the owners status in societies but also in times of war. This became the most predominate in the time of the 16th century when the chariot was introduced to the Egyptians during a war with the Hyksos army (Shulman). The chariot aided in many battles, they could be used in a multitude of ways from, a glorified product mover or transportation for soldiers to be moved to and from the battle fields in a ‘battle taxi’ type manner and a variety of other ways.
A weapon that accompanied the soldiers and their passengers were objects such as the composite bows, arrows and a variety of other object such as spears and swords. The role of an archer was one of value when place on the back of a chariot, literally making this a target almost unable to hit due to the amount of movement. ‘Chariots were used to ferry bowmen to suitable firing positions, where they dismounted and fired their bows on foot, climbing back into their chariots and speeding away when threatened’. One major usage of the chariot was to ram into the front lines of the enemy to scare them into breaking formation, giving the army the opportunity to get behind their lines and start fighting.
The chariots proved themselves most useful on flat unbroken ground, this is where their speed and maneuvering capabilities were at their height. This did however become a thorn in the side of Egyptians during the eighth and ninth centuries when the battle between Egypt and Syria, Palestine Empire broke out, causing the Egyptian chariots to become virtually incapable of performing its intended duties due to the very nature of the landscape; mountainous and rocky. There are many theories as to how chariots aided in the rise and fall of Egypt, the most prominent of these was created by Robert Drews. He claims that chariots were responsible for the end of the Late Bronze Age.
The early ships lacked an internal rib for support. Each boat had a designated section, generally under the main deck, where the slave rowers would sit. There were two different types of ship in Ancient Egypt: the reed boat and the vessel made from large wooden planks. The planked ships created the naval fleet and gave it its fierce reputation.
Weapons and Projectiles
Projectile weapons were used by the ancient Egyptians to weaken the enemy before an infantry assault. Slings, throw sticks, spears, and javelins were used, but the bow and arrow was the primary projectile weapon for most of Egypt's history. A catapult dating to the 19th century BC.
The throw stick does appear to have been used to some extent during Egypt's pre-dynastic period as a weapon, but it seems to have not been very effective for this purpose. Because of their simplicity, skilled infantry continued to use this weapon at least with some regularity through the end of the New Kingdom. It was used extensively for hunting fowl through much of Egypt's dynastic period.
The spear does not fit comfortably into either the clos... The large number of Assyrian letters has allowed us a relatively clear picture of how strategic intelligence was gathered and analyzed in Assyria. The Assyrians often lived in foreign lands, providing many opportunities to learn about those areas. Like other armies, the Assyrians employed scouts before battle. Finally, several Assyrian kings employed divination as a way to learn about enemy troop movements. The thoroughly religious cultures of the ancient Near East opened the door to an avenue that is not taken seriously today when it requested knowledge from the gods.
Scouting and the Battle of Qadesh
The most extensive story about scouting in Egyptian records comes from Ramses II in his campaign against the Hittites at Qadesh. However, in this case Egyptian scouting failed when they did not notice the counter-espionage of the Hittites’ scouts. Two Shasu spies informed Ramses II that the Hittite king remained in Hatti instead of leading his troops into battle, but this was not true as the Hittite king was actually at Qadesh awaiting the pharaoh and had sent these spies to mislead the Egyptian king.
Later, the Egyptian intelligence service partially redeemed itself when it captured two Hittite scouts, who revealed that the Hittite king was near.
| Period | Military Characteristics |
|---|---|
| Old Kingdom | Volunteer armies, basic weapons (shields, spears, bows and arrows) |
| Middle Kingdom | Standing armies, expansion into Nubia |
| Second Intermediate Period | Hyksos invasion, introduction of horses, chariots, and composite bows |
| New Kingdom | Professional soldiers, foreign conquests, chariot warfare |
These changes also caused changes in the role of the military in Egyptian society, and so during the New Kingdom, the Egyptian military changed from levy troops into a firm organization of professional soldiers.
Modern Scouting in Egypt
The Egyptian Federation for Scouts and Girl Guides (EFSGG, Arabic: الاتحاد العام للكشافة والمرشدات Al-Ittiḥād al-`Ām lil-Kaššāfah wal-Muršidāt) is the national Scouting and Guiding federation of Egypt. Scouting was founded in 1914 and was among the charter members of the World Organization of the Scout Movement in 1922, while nominally independent from Britain. Guiding started in 1913 and became a member of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts in 1931.
Most Scout troops are associated with schools, clubs, mosques and churches. Rover units are associated with high schools and universities. Egyptian Scouts play an important role in community service. Scouts are offered vocational training and the skills needed to help develop communities. Scouts learn the importance of planting trees where firewood is scarce, building energy efficient stoves and making good use of their carpentry, electricity and plumbing skills.
The Cairo International Scout Center is a lavish six-floor building next to Cairo International Stadium that welcomes all Scouts, non-Scout organizations and individual guests. As the home of the Arab Scout Region, it hosts both conference facilities and hostel quarters. The Scout Motto is Kun Musta'idan or كن مستعداً, translating as Be Prepared in Arabic.
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