The Nigerian Civil War (also known as the Biafran War) was one of the bloodiest wars in sub-Saharan Africa, claiming over a million lives, mostly women and children. The Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Nigerian-Biafran War, claimed the lives of more than a million people in Africa’s most populous country. It was certainly one of the most brutal conflicts to take place on the African continent in the 20th century.
A declaration of independence led to a 30-month brutal war between the Nigerian government and the newly formed Republic of Biafran government based in what was then-Eastern Region of Nigeria.
Nigeria's civil war explained - BBC News
Historical Roots of the Conflict
First and foremost, the Nigerian Civil War traces its roots to the British colonial period. Great Britain formed modern Nigeria by bringing different ethnic groups together as it completely disregarded the differences among them.
Map depicting the ethno-linguistic groups of Nigeria.
In the north, it mostly comprises Hausas and Fulanis; the south-west mainly has Yoruba people; and the south-east mainly has the Igbo people. And after the British left, those disparate cultural groups vied for power so they could be at the helm of Nigeria’s development.
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The basis of modern Nigeria was formed in 1914 when the United Kingdom amalgamated the Northern and Southern protectorates. The British implemented a system of indirect rule, in which they exerted influence through alliances with local forces. Nigeria gained independence on 1 October 1960.
Ethnic and Regional Divisions
Nigeria’s ethnic diversity, with over 200 ethnic groups, was a crucial factor in reinforcing these regional divisions. The Muslim Hausa-Fulani of the Sokoto Caliphate constituted the largest ethnic group in the northern territory. In the South, the Yoruba ethnic group comprised about 70% of the population of the southwest. The majority of them were Christians, although there was also a sizable Muslim population as well as practitioners of indigenous faiths.
Unification gave the north a territorial advantage over the south, while the south had the advantage of relative economic development.
Key Events Leading to the War
Several critical events exacerbated tensions and ultimately led to the outbreak of the Nigerian Civil War.
The January 1966 Coup
Secondly, the January 1966 coup created even bigger animosities between the Northerners and Igbos. Ahmadu Bello, one of the most respected leaders in the north, was among the top leaders that were taken out by the 1966 January coup, which was orchestrated by junior army officers of mostly Igbo ethnic group. The people in the north termed the January coup as the “Igbo coup”. The coup led to the murder of the two major political leaders from the North, Prime Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and Sarduna of Sokoto. Prime Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Belewa was one of many leading Northern politicians that were killed in the January 1966 in Nigeria.
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Despite the murders, the coup was not successful and General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, a leading Igbo officer in the Nigerian military, was able to suppress the coup and bring some bit of calm.
The July 1966 Counter-Coup
On July 29, 1966, a counter-coup, masterminded by a leading Northern military officer Murtala Muhammed, was carried out. The counter-coup reverted power to the North and caused severe and widespread persecution of Southerners, especially the Igbos in the North. It was reported over 50,000 southerners were killed and over 30,000 were maimed. The worst day of this brutal massacre was on September 29 1966, which came to be infamously called “Black Thursday”. On that day, millions of southerners fled the north.
The Unification Decree 34
Thirdly, Ironsi’s issuance of the Unification Decree 34 fueled the North’s contempt for Southerners. The decree proposed the elimination of the federal system of governance. And in it’s place, a unitary system of governance was proposed.
Lieut. Col. (later Gen.) Odumegwu Ojukwu, pictured here c. 1966, led the secessionist state of Biafra.
The Aburi Accord and Secession
Following the 1966 counter-coup (led by Murtala Muhammed) that removed military head of state Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi from power, Yakubu Gowon was appointed head of state. Ojukwu called on Gowon to immediately reverse Decree 34. To de-escalate situations, a conference was held in Aburi, Ghana. Both parties agreed that a unified Nigeria was the goal and Gowon agreed to Ojukwu’s terms only to renege on some of them. This decision of Gowon was seen by Ojukwu as an attempt to further weaken Eastern Nigeria.
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Less than a week after the Gowon’s decision, Ojukwu unilaterally declared the independence of the Republic of Biafra. And thus, the Nigerian Civil War was birthed.
The War Years
The Federal Republic of Nigeria officially declared war against the newly created state of Biafra in July 1967. The Gowon regime believed that it had to quickly nip the situation in the bud least the secession of one region could encourage other regions to follow suit. What was even more important was the fact that majority (about 60%) of the nation’s oil reserves was housed in this breakaway region.
In the first few months, the Biafran troops launched an offensive led by Lieutenant-Colonel Victor Banjo and gained ground. They crossed the Niger bridge and gained the Midwestern parts of Benin and Asaba. However, due to a lack of weaponry and trained soldiers, this was short-lived, and the Nigerian Army soon pushed back the opponents.
Surprised by the resilience of the Biafran inexperienced troops, the Nigerian Army decided to impose a blockade on all shipping in and out of Biafra. The Biafrans were faced with a severe humanitarian crisis due to the blockade, civilians suffered from starvation and diseases. Millions of children in the eastern part of the country suffered from malnourishment. Soon the world was faced with pictures of skeletal-looking children and several volunteer bodies sent relief. Several international journalists criticized the Nigerian government for deliberately attacking civilians who were trying to get relief packages from these charity bodies.
Backed by Britain, the Nigerian government launched its final offensive in December 1969, dividing Biafran into two with the 3rd Marine Division attacking from the north and the 2nd Infantry Division attacking from the south.
International Involvement
There were some members of the international community that refused to take sides in the war; for example, the United States of America chose to stay neutral, declaring the problem was that of Britain, Nigeria’s former colonizers. The British government, on the other hand, supported the Nigerian federal government. London had huge investments in the oil-rich Biafra region; hence, it was in its own interest to see Nigeria remain united.
Biafra received support mainly from the People’s Republic of China and France. The latter, like Great Britain, had oil companies in the region. Then-president of Tanzania Julius Nyerere provided support to Biafra.
Reasons for Biafra's Defeat
Many blamed the Nigerian government’s blockade as the main reason why the Biafrans did not win the war but there were a lot of factors.
- Firstly, they had very little international support.
- Secondly, there were reports that the minority ethnic groups in Biafra like Ibibio, Efik, Ijaw, Ikwere, and others were poorly treated by the majority Igbos.
- Thirdly, the lack of experienced officers was a major factor in the loss of the war. Most of the officers were students or educated civilians drafted into the Biafran Army and given a few days of training and poor military gear.
More Biafrans died from hunger and diseases than from military attacks.
Aftermath and Long-Term Effects
After the war, there wasn’t any real reconciliation among the various regions. This led to a severe ethnic distrust that still plagues the country to date.
In the words of Harold G., the Nigerian government chose not to exact any harsh forms of punishment on the secessionist as there were fears that it might result in the Igbo people feeling even more resentful.
Reconciliation Efforts
There have been some Nigerian presidents that have worked very hard to patch up this fracture by extending the olive branch to victims of the war. For example, former Nigeria President Obasanjo commuted the dismissals of the Biafran soldiers to retirement and paid them their entitlement in 2000.
Continuing Tensions
Regardless, several decades after the war, the Igbos and other minority ethnic groups still feel marginalized by the Northerners. The power structure in Nigeria is perceived by those groups as still in favor of the Northerners.
The end of the war did not necessarily mean the end of Biafra, there are still pockets of groups that are calling for secession; most notable among those groups are the Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB).
Contemporary Biafran Activism
Since the return of civilian democracy in 1999, however, Biafran activism has become an important part of Nigeria’s political landscape. The two largest neo-Biafran organizations are the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB) and Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB).
Biafran activism is increasingly public. It is a protest movement rather than a party, and many find it appealing because it appears to reject the normal way of doing politics-Biafran activists seek not a seat at the table, but to overturn the table altogether.
Most Biafran activism takes place on the internet, not in the streets. Biafran activism is indelibly tied to social media. This reveals something important about the movement: it flourishes in exile.
Neo-Biafran activism today looks different from the nationalist movement that flickered in and out of life in the late 1960s. It comes at a different political moment, and it speaks to a different group of people. It is a young movement, and few of its members have direct memories of the war.
Lasting Scars
Sadly, the scars of the war are still seen in a lot of areas of the country. Many Southern leaders sometimes express their dissatisfaction over the underdeveloped state of south despite the region holding the majority of the country’s oil reserves; they feel power is not equally shared at the federal level.
However, at the end of the day, many Nigerians believe Nigeria is better united than divided.
50 Years Later: Memories and Perspectives
The deaths of more than a million people in Nigeria as a result of the brutal civil war which ended exactly 50 years ago are a scar on the nation's history. For most Nigerians, the war over the breakaway state of Biafra is generally regarded as an unfortunate episode best forgotten, but for the Igbo people who fought for secession, it remains a life-defining event.
Christopher Ejike Ago: A Soldier's Experience
Christopher Ejike Ago, a soldier, had just finished grammar school and started training as a veterinary assistant when the civil war began. He joined the Biafran army and was assigned to the signal unit. "We thought we were magicians," said 76-year-old Mr Ago. "The Nigerians who were pursuing us were trained soldiers. We were not. We were drafted into the war, given two days' training. Plus the fact that we were hungry. Some of us, our skin was getting rotten. Nobody can fight a war like that."
Felix Nwankwo Oragwu: The Scientist
Felix Nwankwo Oragwu was a physics lecturer when the civil war began. For the next 30 months, he headed the Research and Production (RAP) group comprising Igbo scientists. Its primary responsibility was to provide technological support to the Biafran army, which was poorly equipped. "Without us, the war would have lasted only about 30 hours," said the 85-year-old. "When the war started, there was not a single weapon either in a store or anywhere throughout Biafra. They only had knives and cutlasses. No gun, no bomb, no nothing."
Edna Nwanunobi: The Teacher
Edna Nwanunobi was teaching English and French in a secondary school when the civil war began. She joined the Biafran ministry of foreign affairs as part of a handful of translators who worked directly with Ojukwu. "The war was an incredible period," said 82-year-old Mrs Nwanunobi. "Everybody was forced to go home so you were forced to fraternise with your people more than any time before."
Ojukwu was given a full Nigerian military burial in March 2012.
Conclusion
Fifty years after the Biafran conflict, Nigeria is still battling to maintain its unity, with various groups, not just the Igbo, calling for the restructuring of Africa's most populous state. It is probably for this reason that the war is barely mentioned. The government has nothing to gain by reminding Nigerians that secession happened before and can be attempted again.
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