Ancient Egyptian costumes hold a significant place in the history of fashion. Known for their intricate designs and symbolic meanings, these garments were more than mere clothing; they were an expression of status, identity, and beliefs.
Ancient Egyptian dress can broadly be divided into types of tunics, robes, skirts, and shawls, typically made of linen. Ancient Egyptians primarily used linen to create their costumes, owing to the abundance of flax in the region. Linen was highly valued for its lightweight and breathable properties, making it ideal for Egypt’s hot climate. The fabric was often bleached to achieve a white color, which was considered pure and elegant. Wealthier individuals adorned their garments with intricate beadwork, embroidery, and even gold thread, showcasing their social status and wealth.
Though we find Egyptian costume in many instances decorated all over with woven or printed patterns, decoration in the main was confined to accessories such as the head-dress, collar, and girdle, these being often painted, embroidered, beaded, or jeweled. See various examples given.
Ancient Egyptian Dress (3100 B.C. onwards)
The earliest types of costume were the tunics; midway come the robes and skirts, and the draped or shawl type of costume appears the latest. However, the older types of costume did not disappear as the new ones were introduced, but all continued to be worn contemporaneously.
The dates of most of the costumes in this volume are given with their description, and have been verified at the British Museum.
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The material used in the costumes was chiefly linen. In the most ancient types it was of a fairly thick, coarse weave; but in the later examples a fine thin linen, loosely woven so as to appear almost transparent, was used. The linen has often a stiffened appearance, and also gives the idea of having been goffered or pleated.
Styles & Symbolism
The styles of ancient Egyptian costumes varied according to social class, gender, and occasion. Men typically wore kilts known as ‘schenti,’ while women donned tight-fitting dresses called ‘kalasiris.’ Both garments were often complemented with cloaks and shawls for added elegance. The colors and designs were not merely aesthetic choices but also held symbolic meanings. For example, the color white symbolized purity, while green represented fertility and life.
Men's Attire
Men wore loincloths or skirts at the time, as well as long shirts tied around the waist.
Women's Attire
Ancient Egyptian women often wore a type of sheath dress, which was idealized as quite tight in art. This dress varied in design from a tube of fabric that ended before the bust and was held up by straps, to a more modest T shaped tunic style.
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Unisex Accessories
Both genders sometimes wore a loose caftan which would be draped in different ways with the aid of a woven belt or knots. Both genders wore makeup and jewelry. Jewelry was extensive and varied, including necklaces (such as pectorals, menat, broad collars), bracelets, anklets, and rings (especially seal rings). Girdles were one of the oldest forms of known jewelry in Egypt. Earrings were not common in Egypt until the New Kingdom, and were likely introduced from Nubia. Elaborate aprons made of beads or possibly decorated leather were typically worn by men of a high status, such as pharaohs. Materials for jewelry included gold, silver, turquoise, jasper, garnet, amazonite, agate, amethyst, feldspar, carnelian, obsidian, lapis, and faience. Glass started to be used in the New Kingdom.
Sandals were worn by all classes of society, with the difference among classes being how the shoe was made and what materials were used. Many Ancient Egyptians wore wigs, hair extensions, or dyed their hair with henna. Men's wigs, especially of higher classes, tended to be more elaborate.
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Religious and Ceremonial Attire
Religious and ceremonial attire in ancient Egypt was particularly elaborate. Priests and priestesses wore special garments that were believed to have protective and divine properties. These costumes were often decorated with religious symbols and hieroglyphs to invoke the favor of the gods. During important ceremonies and festivals, the Pharaoh and other high-ranking officials would don elaborate costumes to signify their divine authority and connection to the gods.
Hellenic and Roman Influences
Fashions began a marked change with increased Hellenic influence. The Greeks introduced woolen clothes into Egypt, which gradually became more popular than linen. The Roman's introduced their style of tunics with clavi and roundel decorations to Egypt, and not long after, sleeved tunics became generally popular. These decorations were made with tapestry weave (also known as kabaty). This style of decoration remained popular in Egypt, and eventually influenced Chinese weavers.
Greek himations and Roman togas were also introduced. Garments were overall similar in structure, with gender differences coming from style. Women preferred longer tunics and closed shoes, while men wore shorter tunics and sandals, or did not wear shoes at all.
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Medieval Egyptian Dress
Medieval Egyptian dress included a variety of turbans, coats, caftans, and tunics. Earlier on, a common man might only wear tubban (briefs), sirwal, or sirwal and a short mantle. Worker's tunics, when worn, were typically knee length. Wool was common among the working class and even preferred.
By the Mamluk period, nearly everyone wore trousers (sirwal) and a robe overtop, either a thob or a qamis. Sirwal could be full or knee length, with the latter being associated with the lower class. Long and ample sleeves were associated with higher status under the Mamluks, and could sometimes hide the hands entirely. Some were double the length of the arm.
Women wore, in addition to these basic items, mantles, face veils, and scarves over their hair which were kept in place with fillets called 'isaba. Evidence from the Cairo Geniza indicates Jewish and Muslim women dressed similarly, and that ghiyar wasn't particularly enforced, with the exception of al-Hakim and restrictions on color that later became the norm under the Mamluks. The Geniza indicates stripes were fairly common, as were checked patterns, but spots were uncommon. Gold embroidery and gilding were also popular, with the latter being less expensive.
The Fatimid court provided an entire wardrobe to every official and their retainers, "from the turban to the underwear". Most of these were white with silver and gold embroidery. One popular garment was the qaba, which came in two main varieties; the Turkish style (al-aqbiya al-turkiyya), and the Tatar (or Mongolian) style (al-aqbiya al-tatariyya or qabā' tatarī). The latter fastened on the wearer's right side, and was preferred by Mamluk amirs in its day over the former style, which was favored by the Seljuks and Ayyubids. Both varieties had a waist seam and sometimes had a pleated or gathered skirt, and fastened with buttons or strings.
The jukaniyya was a sleeved women's garment made of linen, brocade, or silk. The makhtuna was a women's garment that may have occasionally been worn by men. The futa was a sari-like long cloth imported from India and chiefly worn by women. The tikka was a drawstring for sirwal. It was sometimes made of nicer fabric such as silk, embroidered, jeweled, and/or perfumed.
In the Mamluk era, a counted running stitch technique was popular. This was likely one of the predecessors of European blackwork. In the 13th century, kasabji was a prominent style of embroidery produced in Cairo.
The mintaqa was a sword belt, often worn with a qaba and sirwal by soldiers. It was sometimes decorated with metal. Under the Abbasid Caliphate it was prohibited from being worn by dhimmis. The hiyasa was a belt of petal plaquettes that descended from it, and initially was a military belt. It was usually made of silver, but sometimes it was also made of gold or jade. The finest ones were also set with gems. A scarf was often tucked into it and left hanging.
Caps and Turbans
Caps and turbans were worn by most men, as it was improper to be in public without one. These came in a variety of forms, and could be the most expensive items a man wore. Different hats and turbans were chosen for fashion reasons, but sometimes also had special significance. The Fatimid Caliph had a special turban (al taj al sharif) made of a cap with a mandil wound around it in the shape of a myrobalan. It was decorated all over with jewels, and a solitaire mounted on a silk fillet would be tied to sit in the center of the forehead.
The qalansuwa was usually a tall cap (described miter like, shaped like a sugar loaf, or shaped like an inverted amphora (dann) and subsequently also called a danniyya) made from a reed or wood frame that was covered in fabric. Until the 11th century, a tall one was used as uniform of judges. Variations existed, such as the short and round variants, which were usually made of fur (especially fox) or fabric, and had a winding cloth for a turban.
The tartura or tartur was a tall cap, and was first mentioned in a 7th-century papyrus. The normal military hat under the Ayyubids and Mamluks was called a sharbush. It was a stiff hat trimmed with fur that had a triangular front.
The kalawta varied in shape and size. At first it was yellow, but over time red became the proper color. It was made of wool or fabric shot with gold. It was also used for takhfifa. the saraquj was a conical hat with a brim that could be turned up or down. It was popular under the Mamluks, though in art, Asian men are the ones typically shown wearing it. It was usually white or tan, but could be other colors as well. The tip could have a metal knob, pointed plaque, tuft, or long feathers attached.
By the Mamluk period, knee high boots were popular with men, especially higher class men. Taller boots were cut so they still ended below the knee in the back. These boots were often red, brown, or black, and had blazon decorations. Nobles often wore decorative spurs on their boots. Some soldiers and officials wore cloth leggings that only covered the calf instead.
Fatimid jewelry was typically made of gold with filigree and granulation techniques. Enamel and niello were also popular techniques.
17th to 19th Century Dress
In the 17th century, the rural men's robe was made of coarse wool with wide sleeves and closed in the front. The drawers of an Egyptian man of the 1830s were called libas. They were made of cotton or linen, and had an embroided dikkeh/tikkeh (drawstring).
The wealthy and middle-class men's shift of the time was white, had full sleeves, and made of linen, cotton, muslin, silk, or silk-cotton stripe. It was an underlayer. The lower-class men's shifts were often an outer layer. Theirs were commonly made of blue cotton or linen (an 'eree) or brown wool (a zaaboot).
Men's caftans were typically made of striped cotton and silk, though brocade was once popular, and they were lined with ramie. They were typically worn with a fabric belt (hizan or hizam), and may have a matching vest, called a sedria. They were typically ankle length, and the older style was to cut the sleeves so they extended a few inches past the fingertips and had a slit up to the wrist.
Over the caftan, shift, or sometimes underneath the shirt (as was preferred by lower-class men), was the sedria, a sleeveless vest made of silk or cotton. Over the caftan, a coat such as a binish or djubbeh would be worn. The binish was a wide sleeved robe worn by scholars throughout the Near East, made of dark fabric with a silk facing. The sleeve sometimes had a slit on the bottom.
Some distinguished the slit-less coat by calling it the farageeyeh (or faragiya). The djubbeh (or jubba, or gibbeh) had a more complicated cut and narrow sleeves, which ended just above the wrist. It was also worn by Kurds. These garments were also worn by women in silk or velvet fabrics and brighter colors and embroidery.
These were a narrower cut than men's djubbeh and worn over the yelek. Some women wore a saltah instead of the djubbeh, which was also of embroidered velvet or cloth. These caftans and coats persisted in Egypt into the early 20th century.
The topmost layer was a square cloak called and abayeh or aba. It was often made of wool, and sometimes black, but blue and white and brown and white stripe were also common in the 1830s. Brighter colors such as purple or blue, with metal thread decoration, are also found in some extant 19th-century examples. A cloak like the aba, but fuller, also existed. It was called a diffeeyeh and usually black or blue in color.
The turban of the 19th-century consisted of a taqiya as the base layer, a tarboosh, and then a white muslin or Kashmir shawl (particularly in cool weather) wound around it. Poorer men usually used a scarf of red, yellow, or white wool, or a scarf of coarse cotton or muslin. Some poor men only wore the taqiya. Descendants of the Prophet Muhammad had the privilege of wearing green turbans.
The tarboosh was implemented in Egypt by Mahmud Khan II's promotion of it in the Ottoman Empire as modern dress, and by Mohammed Ali, who initially mandated its use in military uniforms.
Stockings were uncommon in the 1830s. When worn they were of cotton and wool. The most common shoes were pointed slippers of a leather called "Morocco", with red for outdoors and yellow for indoors. Shoes were commonly layered so one could slip off their outdoor shoes without being barefoot while inside.
The inkhorn, pencase, dagger, and case knife were often tucked into a man's girdle and worn openly. A tobacco purse and embroided kerchief were also often tucked into the chest of the caftan. The 19th-century man usually had a seal ring, even if he was poor. It was worn on the right little finger. It was commonly of silver with a stone such as carnelian set into it.
19th-century Egyptian men shaped their facial hair by shaving or plucking above and below the lower jaw, and a small portion below the lower lip. The mustache and rest of the beard were kept short, but otherwise left alone. Dyeing grey beards was not common.
A typical servant's costume of the 1830s had a white shift, a sedria, a caftan or a djubbeh or both, and a blue shirt as the outermost layer.
Modern Egyptian Dress
Egyptian men often wear a galabiya, and may wear a taqiya, sometimes with a turban. A sedria may be worn under the galabiya. Egyptian men do not typically wear jewelry in the modern day, though they may wear prayer beads.
The modern galabiya has a low scooped neckline with a slit in the bottom. Sometimes this slit has buttons to close it. The sleeves and hem flare out to be very wide. It is made of paler, lighter colors in summer, and darker, heavier fabric for winter. The modern turban is usually simple, cotton in summer and wool in winter.
Certain trends for how it is wrapped or what color scarves are used occur regionally, but there aren't clear trends.
16th century European travelers remarked upon the common dress of Egyptian women to be a large blue chemise with wide sleeves, similar to that of Egyptian men. This is reiterated in Description de l’Égypte, which comes from 18th century. Most Egyptian women wore a tob, with its hem hitting anywhere between the hips and feet, over a pair of baggy trousers. It was dyed blue and undecorated. The tob likely descends from the bahṭala, a Mamluk era garment.
As of the late 19th century, this description is repeated, with the added detail of red embroidery around the neckline. It is likely that wealthier women's gowns had even more extensive embroidery than these descriptions, as European travelers would have only had contact with very poor women, who could not afford embroidery, or very wealthy urban women, who wore Ottoman fashions.
The common clothing for 19th century Egyptian women included a yelek or entari (anteri), a close fitting caftan derived from Turkish dress of either floor, hip, or waist length, vests, a shift, a sash, baggy pants (shintiyan), and outer garments for going out in public.
By the turn of the 20th century, upper-class women adopted Western dress. However, middle-class women continued wearing the prototypical women's galabiya, a yoked empire waist gown with a train. Theirs were made of silk or satin, with lots of trim. Those worn at home or under black outer modesty garments were brightly colored.
In the second half of the 19th-century, some dancers chose to wear a woman's galabiya instead of the Ottoman derived costume, sometimes with shintiyan and entari. However, many dancers kept the Ottoman derived costume, with a skirt instead of shintiyan. One dance group kept it into the 1970s, with a shorter skirt decorated with tiers of bead fringe and wide ribbons on the belt.
The yelek was a long caftan with a fitted body and skirts with long slashes that allowed the panels to be tucked upwards and revealed the pants underneath. It had a low neckline and fastened with buttons. It had long sleeves that hung loose from the elbow and revealed the shift underneath. The sedria was worn under the yelek or entari and over the shift. It and the entari were sometimes covered in coins or trimmed with lace ruffles.
The dancers entari and sedria ended just under the bust by the mid-19th century, and the entari sometimes had gathered blousy sleeves. The shift adopted from the Ottoman style was knee length, and the sleeves were often edged with lace or embroidery. It was usually white, and made in any fiber except wool. It was sheer. In the 18th and early 19th-century, it was ankle length, but by the 1830s it was knee length.
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