Kenya has been grappling with significant challenges related to gender-based violence (GBV), mental health issues, and socio-economic disparities affecting women, particularly in urban informal settlements. Understanding the statistics is crucial for developing effective interventions and policies.
Femicide and Gender-Based Violence
In 2024, Kenya experienced an unprecedented surge in femicide, with at least 170 women killed-the highest annual toll on record according to Africa Uncensored and Odipo Dev. This represents a 79 per cent increase from 2023, when 95 cases were recorded. Between September and November 2024 alone, law enforcement agencies recorded 97 femicide cases, averaging more than one woman killed every day.
GBV is a severe issue in Kenya, where at least 678 women and girls were murdered by intimate partners from 2016 to 2024. The Nairobi Women's Hospital's Gender Violence Recovery Center report receiving approximately 4,000 gender-based violence cases monthly, highlighting the widespread nature of the crisis. Activists attribute the rise in gender-based violence to systemic misogyny and inadequate legal protections.
In response to public outcry, President William Ruto established a 42-member task force to address gender-based violence, though concerns remain about its potential effectiveness.
Impact of Funding Cuts on GBV Prevention
The quiet elimination of GBV interventions highlights an overlooked tragedy: Programs addressing societal issues such as violence against women often lose visibility when global attention shifts to other crises. Without sustained international attention and support, thousands of Kenyan women face increased danger, isolation, and vulnerability.
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Mental Health Impact of Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence in Kenya
Catherine Meng'anyi, the GBV prevention and response coordinator for Migori County, in western Kenya, has already witnessed the dismantling of critical networks that once connected hospitals, police, and community support. "Emergency shelters are closing, and survivors have nowhere safe to turn."
Emergency shelters are closing, and survivors have nowhere safe to turn. funding further compounds this risk, particularly for women in Kenya's informal workforce. Those employed in artisanal mining and domestic labor-sectors known for low wages and poor workplace safety-also face heightened exposure to exploitation and violence due to the lack of regulatory protections. "Poverty drives vulnerability," said Meng'anyi.
USAID's approach in Kenya was holistic, embedding GBV prevention into broader health and educational efforts. These programs targeted both immediate threats and the underlying factors-poverty, limited education, and deep-rooted cultural attitudes-that perpetuate cycles of violence.
Mental Health in Informal Settlements
Approximately 56% of Kenya´s population resides in informal settlements (UN-Habitat, 2016). Female residents experience a range of psychosocial stressors including chronic poverty and high rates of interpersonal violence.
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Despite evidence that women living in informal settlements are disproportionality vulnerable to numerous risk factors, there are few published studies on their mental health status, from Kenya or other sub Saharan African countries. In one exception, Winter et al. (2020) found women in an informal settlement in Nairobi who experienced recent psychological and physical violence from their husbands were more than two times as likely to meet criteria for depression, suggesting IPV is central to understanding mental health problems in this context.
Drawing from a life course perspective, in addition to IPV, we assessed exposure to violence in childhood and lifetime exposure to sexual violence, along with current economic stress because these social determinants of mental health are reported to be high in this context (Winter et al., 2020). We also evaluated potential protective factors to better understand resilience among this population, which has largely been absent in previous studies.
In this study, we used path analysis to test if hypothesized risk factors including economic stress, along with psychological and physical violence from one´s current partner, childhood physical abuse, and a history of sexual violence were associated with elevated symptoms of PTSS and depression.
Methodology
Approval was obtained from the Strathmore University Institutional Ethics Review Committee in Kenya prior to the start of data collection. Enumerators were 15 community health volunteers (14 females and one male) from the local area who took part in a 5-day training that incorporated WHO (2001) standards on domestic violence research.
Data were collected in two informal settlements in Nakuru County, Kenya; Rhonda in Nakuru Town West Subcounty and Karagita in Naivasha Subcounty. According to the 2019 census, the informal settlement in Rhonda has a population of 53,688 in an area of approximately 3.1 square kilometres (sq.km). Karagita has an estimated population of 30,000 living in an area of approximately 1.1 sq.km. Both areas are characterized by poor housing conditions, with most families living in one-room, makeshift structures without indoor plumbing. The population tends to be transitory.
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The final sample included 301 women; 204 from the more populated area of Rhonda and 97 from Karagita. As shown in Table 1, most participants were under 35 years of age (69.1%). Women had 0 to 10 children (Mdn = 2) and 1 to 11 people living in the household (Mdn = 4).
Key Measurements
Participants were asked with a single item to rate how difficult it was to pay for necessities in the past month (e.g. food, water, etc.) on a scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4 (very hard).
Exposure to sexual violence and childhood physical abuse were assessed with two items from the Brief Trauma Questionnaire (BTQ; Schnurr, Spiro, Vielhauer, Findler, & Hamblen, 2002): ‘Has anyone ever made or pressured you into having some type of unwanted sexual contact?’ and ‘Before age 18, were you ever physically punished or beaten by a parent, caretaker, or teacher so that: you were very frightened; or you thought you would be injured; or you received bruises, cuts, welts, lumps or other injuries?’ Respondents answered yes or no to each item. The two items were scored as dichotomous variables.
Exposure to psychological and physical violence from one´s partner was assessed using selected items from the World Health Organization Violence Against Women Instrument (Garcia-Moreno et al., 2006). Four items assess psychological violence and seven items assess physical violence (including sexual violence) from one´s current husband/partner.
Support from family was assessed with a single item ‘How many family members do you have whom you could rely on for a serious problem?’ Because a majority of participants indicated they had five or more family members they can rely on, we dichotomised the response to compare those who do and do not have such a family member. Support from friends was assessed in the same way. Community connection was assessed with a single item from the Adapted Social Capital Assessment Tool (SASCAT; De Silva et al., 2006) ‘Do you feel you are really a part of this community?’ to which participants responded yes or no.
Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were assessed using the 20-item PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5; Blevins, Weathers, Davis, Witte, & Domino, 2015). Symptoms of depression were assessed with the 15-item depression scale from Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL; Derogatis, Lipman, Rickels, Uhlenhuth, & Covi, 1974).
Findings on Abuse
A high percentage of participants reported at least one form of abuse from their husbands; 68.8% endorsed at least one form of psychological abuse and 61.8% endorsed at least one form of physical abuse. Just over half of participants (52.2%) reported both forms of abuse.
The most common forms of psychological abuse involved being insulted (60.8%), being humiliated in front of other people (39.5%), being intimated by husband yelling or throwing things (38.9%), and having husband threaten to hurt her or someone she cares about (31.2%). The most common acts of physical abuse were being slapped (37.5%), forced to have sexual intercourse (35.9%), hit with a fist or object (29.2.%) and physically assaulted (27.5%). Regarding other forms of interpersonal violence, 62.5% had been exposed to physical abuse during childhood; 26.6% had lifetime exposure to sexual violence.
Sexual Violence Statistics
Sexual violence, a global concern, disproportionately affects women. In Kenya, over 40% of women experience intimate partner violence, reflecting a pressing need for understanding and addressing this issue. Sub-Saharan Africa faces a 18.7% prevalence with deep-rooted determinants like unequal power relations and cultural practices. Consequences from unwanted pregnancy to trauma hinder development goals.
Government statistics from the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (KDHS) have revealed alarming figures, indicating that over 40% of women have endured physical or sexual intimate partner violence in their lifetime, with the lifetime violence prevalence standing at 20.5% [8]. The determinants of this scourge are multifaceted and deeply rooted, often entwined with unequal power relations in society, cultural practices and ideologies, the control of women’s sexuality, and the objectification of women for pleasure.
Study on Sexual Violence
This study analyzed 2022 Kenya Demographic Health Survey data. Employing a stratified two-stage cluster sampling approach, 1,692 clusters were selected from the Kenya Household Master Sample Frame (K-HMSF) using equal probability selection (EPSEM).
The dependent variable was sexual violence which was defined based on responses to the DHS survey questions. The questions usually enquire if the respondent has ever been subjected to any kind of sexual violence whether rape, forced sexual intercourse or other instances of sexual coercion. These questions were then coded as binary (Yes = 1, No = 0) to create the outcome variable for instance, if a respondent responded ‘Yes’ to any of the questions, the outcome variable shall be coded as 1 (Every respondent who has ever experienced sexual violence).
Data cleaning and analysis were conducted using STATA 17 software. To account for unequal probability sampling across clusters and ensure representativeness, sample weights were applied. Descriptive statistics were used to determine frequencies and percentages, while bivariate analysis with binary logistic regression assessed associations between independent variables and sexual violence. Significant variables identified in the bivariate analysis were further examined in a multivariate logistic regression model.
Socio-Demographic Characteristics
Table 1 below summarizes the socio-demographic characteristics of 15,269 women aged 15-49 from the 2022 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey. The majority (41.9%) were aged 20-29, with 69.6% married. Educational attainment was varied: 37.7% had primary education, and 20.7% had higher education, indicating potential empowerment issues. Most respondents (58%) lived in rural areas, and religious affiliation showed a significant Protestant presence (37.5%). Economic status revealed that 24.9% were in the richest category, while 32.8% were unemployed. Household dynamics reflected traditional structures, with 64.5% male-headed households. Additionally, 40.5% reported exposure to domestic violence, with 13.4% justifying violence if a wife refused sex.
| Characteristic | Percentage |
|---|---|
| Age 20-29 | 41.9% |
| Married | 69.6% |
| Primary Education | 37.7% |
| Higher Education | 20.7% |
| Rural Residence | 58% |
| Protestant | 37.5% |
| Richest Category | 24.9% |
| Unemployed | 32.8% |
| Male-Headed Household | 64.5% |
| Exposure to Domestic Violence | 40.5% |
| Justify Violence if Wife Refuses Sex | 13.4% |
Women aged 40-49 (COR = 2.03, p < 0.000) and 30-39 (COR = 1.53, p = 0.001) were particularly vulnerable. Educational attainment played a crucial role, with those having primary (COR = 2.48, p < 0.000) and secondary education (COR = 1.79, p < 0.000) at higher risk, while higher education appeared protective (COR = 0.95, p = 0.691). Rural residence (COR = 1.16, p = 0.011) and being in the poorer wealth quintile (COR = 1.45, p < 0.000) also increased vulnerability. Employment was linked to greater risk (COR = 1.76, p < 0.000). Notably, alcohol consumption-both by respondents (COR = 1.91, p < 0.000) and partners (COR = 3.20, p < 0.000)-was a strong predictor, along with exposure to domestic violence (COR = 14.04, p < 0.000).
The multivariate analysis showed educational attainment significantly impacted sexual violence risk; women with primary education (AOR:2.35, 95% CI: 1.22-4.54) and those with secondary education (AOR:2.13, 95% CI: 1.04-4.36) showed higher odds of 2.35 and 2.13 respectively than women with higher education.
The desire for children influenced outcomes, with the partner/husband wanting more children (AOR:1.75, 95% CI: 1.28-2.38) than both partners wanting the same number of children and the husband wanting fewer children.
Notably, exposure to domestic violence presented a striking odd of 8.69 than women who didn’t report any form of domestic violence (AOR:8.69, 95% CI: 5.85-12.91), indicating a strong association with current experiences of sexual violence. Additionally, partner alcohol consumption increased had increased 1.66 odds of experiencing sexual violence than when a partner doesn’t consume alcohol (AOR:1.66, 95% CI: 1.22-2.25).
The study found that 10.4% of women aged 15-49 in Kenya reported experiencing sexual violence. Educational attainment emerged as a significant factor influencing the risk of sexual violence. Women with primary or secondary education were more likely to report experiencing sexual violence. The desire for children was another important predictor of sexual violence, with women whose partners wanted more children exhibiting a 1.75 times greater likelihood of experiencing sexual violence. Exposure to domestic violence presented a striking association with sexual violence, with women who had experienced domestic violence being nearly nine times more likely to report sexual violence. Partner alcohol consumption was also found to be a significant risk factor for sexual violence, with women whose partners consumed alcohol having a 1.66 times higher likelihood of experiencing sexual violence.
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