For 30 years, Kenya has been a refuge for more than 750,000 individuals fleeing conflict and persecution from neighboring countries such as Somalia, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Burundi. While a majority reside in the Kakuma and Dadaab refugee camps, over 100,000 refugees have sought shelter in urban areas.
Kakuma Refugee Camp, located in northwestern Kenya, has grown into one of the world’s largest refugee settlements since its establishment by the UNHCR in 1992. Initially intended as a temporary shelter for those fleeing conflicts in Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia, the camp now hosts refugees from various nations.
The camp is located in Turkana County, one of the poorest counties in Kenya. Many Turkana residents are pastoralists living semi-nomadic lifestyles, and most live in small huts in villages without running water or electricity.
Since 1992, Kakuma has hosted refugees fleeing war in neighboring countries with no resolution in sight. Upon arrival in Kakuma, infrastructure sighs from years of wear and use-from the reception center to the shelters of refugees.
Map of Kenya highlighting Turkana County, where Kakuma Refugee Camp is located.
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Historical Context and Establishment
Kakuma Refugee Camp was established by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in 1992 following the arrival of the “Lost Boys of Sudan”, i.e., between 20.000 and 30.000 boys who fled South Sudan during the Second Sudanese Civil War. It was also intended to provide shelter to Ethiopian refugees.
Over time, Kakuma has expanded to accommodate a diverse refugee population, and as of January 2025, the camp’s population counted 300.000 people (UNHCR, 2025). The Kakuma camp is divided into four areas: Kakuma 1, 2, 3, and 4. In addition to the camp itself, there is also the Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement in the vicinity, established in 2016 to decongest Kakuma and promote socio-economic integration with the host community. This settlement Kalobeyei consists of 3 villages: Village 1, 2, and 3.
Current Challenges
Despite the efforts to decongest the camp and integrate the residents into local communities, the camp continues to face serious challenges related to resource allocation, infrastructure, and protecting vulnerable populations, particularly children.
As I observed lines of sheet-metal homes and the car wheels roll over rocks on narrow roads, everything appeared to be, quite literally, falling apart. With temperatures hovering around 90-100 degrees for most of the year, there is little chance for respite from the heat. Insecurity in the camp, the risk of robbery and being caught in interethnic conflict, has corroded any sense of stability and routine.
The challenging socio-economic situation for refugees and host communities may have deepened even further due to the COVID-19 (coronavirus) pandemic shock, exacerbating the already extreme fragility of both populations.
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LIFE IN KAKUMA REFUGEE CAMP (Kenya 🇰🇪 East Africa)
Socio-Economic Conditions
To understand this question, a team from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the World Bank joined forces, with support from the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, to investigate the socio-economic outcomes of refugees compared to nationals.
Our study shows severe poverty and vulnerability for both hosts and refugees, making the case for targeted interventions to buffer livelihoods, improve human capital, and break the cycle of poverty across these communities. We found that 68% of Kakuma refugees and 65 percent of Kalobeyei refugees live below the poverty line of $1.90 per day (2011 PPP). Strikingly, the immediate surrounding host community in Turkana County is even more impoverished with 72% living in poverty. In comparison, 37% of Kenyans are poor at the national level.
Refugees have shockingly low levels of employment compared to the surrounding host community in Turkana county and wider Kenya. Of the working-age population some 20% of refugees are employed compared to 62% of Turkana residents and 71% across wider Kenya. Refugees have job-related skills that can be strengthened and matched to market and community needs, but they face restrictions to work and move within Kenya.
Easing restrictions on refugees’ capacity to work and providing easy-to-access information can translate into increased participation in the labor market. Engaging the private sector can further enhance the labor market opportunities for both communities.
While primary education at 80% is comparable between refugees and nationals, though slightly lower in Kalobeyei camp, only half of Turkana children attend primary education. Whilst transition into secondary education is a challenge nationally, it is even more so for refugees and Turkana children.
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In addition, camp-based schools face several challenges such as overcrowded classes, lack of learning enablers such as electricity, water and sanitation, and inadequate number of teachers, two-thirds of whom are unqualified but receiving training.
The World Bank’s COVID-19 Rapid Response Phone Survey finds much larger impacts of COVID-19 on the already more precarious employment situation for refugees combined with a slower recovery. In addition, impacts on education are expected to be more significant for refugees as they engaged less often in learning activities while schools were closed, exacerbating existing inequalities in education.
Sanitation and Health
The Kakuma camp was initially planned to accommodate around 90.000 individuals. Despite the Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement establishment, the camp remains overcrowded, stretching the limits of the decades-old infrastructure and available resources. One of the main points of concern in this regard is the sanitation system. In the Kakuma camp, sanitation is primarily based on pit latrine use. When the pit is full, waste remains in it, necessitating the construction of a new latrine.
Minimum standards required for affected populations to survive and recover in safe and dignified conditions state that latrines should be shared by no more than 20 individuals, and toilets should be situated no further than 50 meters from a household. However, while some residents do have access to household latrines, data from 2021 indicates that only 77% of refugees in Kakuma Refugee Camp and Kalobeyei Settlement had latrines in proximity to their shelters.
Limited access to proper sanitation and improper human waste disposal increases the risk of diarrhea-related morbidity and mortality. As an illustration, back in 2005, there was an outbreak of watery diarrhea within the Kakuma camp when 418 people were treated, and 4 people died. This is especially dangerous for special populations, including children and sick, elderly, or disabled people, for whom the distance between the household and the latrines can pose an additional challenge and whose immune systems are more easily compromised.
Malnutrition
Food shortages caused by insufficient aid resources and severe and frequent droughts affecting Kenya have been a reality for those living in the Kakuma camp. Since September 2018, refugees in Kenya have not received what were considered to be full rations, and in 2022, those rations were further reduced from 60% to just 50% of what is required for basic sustenance.
This decrease has contributed to widespread negative coping mechanisms among families, as over 50% of beneficiaries reported skipping meals or borrowing food to survive. Tensions escalated when refugees clashed with police after it had been announced that allocations would be reduced to just 40% of the basic minimum level. Refugees displayed signs demanding more food and highlighted their desperate conditions, demonstrating the severe impact of ongoing cuts to humanitarian support on meeting their basic human needs.
Water Scarcity
While the chronic water scarcity and the lack of a proper water system impact all Kakuma refugees, young girls are affected not only by not having sufficient and safe water to meet their hygiene and drinking needs, but in other ways as well. The responsibility for collecting water falls primarily on them and their female family members.
Cultural norms dictate that water collection is women’s work, leading to significant time and energy being devoted to this task. Many girls miss school to gather water needed for cooking, washing, and personal hygiene, which directly affects their academic performance and prospects. Also, the pursuit of water sometimes leads to hours of walking, often placing the girls at risk of being attacked by robbers or others searching for water, as well as of being raped.
On top of the direct risks to their safety and the physical demands of collecting water, the psychological toll on young girls is considerable as well. The constant fear of attacks and anxiety of locating clean water, as the water they manage to collect is often contaminated, expose these girls to significant stress.
Violence and Child Protection
Every day, violent scenarios are the reality for children living in the Kakuma camp. Many of them have witnessed the horrors of war only to find refuge in the camp in which violence is ever-present. Some are direct victims.
Child abuse is frequent in Kakuma. Cases of such violence involve physical and sexual abuse, early marriage, female genital mutilation (FGM), threats of abduction, tribal conflict, as well as psychological and emotional harm. Accurately determining the prevalence and incidence of these incidents is challenging since many cases go unreported due to weak reporting and referral mechanisms, insufficient child-friendly spaces, a shortage of child protection focal points, limited prevention activities, and challenges in staff retention.
Girls and unaccompanied children are particularly vulnerable. Young girls are exposed to gender-based violence. Healthcare workers from International Rescue Committee (IRC) Kenya report that have witnessed cases of defilement, criminal abortion, physical assault, rape, and sodomy. Unaccompanied minors, regardless of their gender, are often victimized as the least protected group of residents. They are victims of domestic abuse, all forms of sexual abuse, child recruitment, and early marriage.
Overview of Child Protection Risks in Humanitarian Settings
Kenya's Refugee Act 2021
Kenya’s passage of the Refugee Act 2021 could be a game changer. If fully implemented, the Act offers refugees freedom of movement, the right to work, and access to financial services, among other rights. One of the central pillars of the new refugee policy is turning refugee camps into urban settlement areas.
On March 30, 2023, Jeremiah Ekamais Lomorukai Napotikan, Turkana County Governor conferred municipality status to Kakuma Municipality, including the Kakuma refugee camp, Kalobeyei integrated settlement, and Kakuma town. However, Kenyan urban development faces immense challenges. Local governments need more resources to provide essential services and infrastructure, strengthening governance performance in urban areas.
Additionally, Kenya’s Refugee Act 2021 envisions that the refugees in the camps will be turned into integrated settlements, thus creating opportunities to integrate the refugees into the host community. While the new law does not elaborate on the integration process, this is the best alternative among the traditional durable solutions for refugees because most refugees are unlikely to return to their home countries, and resettlement in third countries is already limited to less than one percent of refugees.
Indeed, by transforming refugee transitioning camps into settlements in the new law, there is hope for providing a better pathway for localizing refugee response. It also enhances local governments’ capacity to respond better and share the responsibility of hosting refugees hosting burden while sustainably addressing the needs of a growing and diversifying population’s participation in local urban governance and refugees’ inclusion in local economic development.
Durable Solutions and Integration
There are three durable solutions to refugee situations: return to the country of origin, third-country resettlement, or integration in the countries of refuge.
At a time when many countries are adopting restrictive refugee policies, Kenya’s enactment of socio-economic integration for refugees should be applauded and supported despite the gaps in the laws and policies.
HIAS's Role in Kenya
HIAS has been active in Kenya since 2002, supporting the rights and well-being of displaced people. HIAS Kenya integrates best practices with a focus on community-based protection and empowerment. HIAS Kenya’s core work encompass safeguarding refugees through providing legal support, strengthening their economic empowerment, and advocating for their rights and well-being.
Protracted Refugee Situations
Kenya hosts over 491,000 refugees fleeing from persecution in some of the largest refugee camps in the world. Though intended as temporary, many refugees find themselves stuck in these camps for years, sometimes even generations, which then grants them the title of “protracted refugee.” This perpetuation of a limbo state is brought on from continuing threats in their country of origin, existing xenophobia in public spheres, and an inability to establish themselves economically or socially outside of the camp.
Protracted refugees feel a greater sense of social insecurity, increased mental health challenges, and increased vulnerability that can lead to exploitation. While some organizations are working to find more long-term solutions for these refugees through local integration, others are working to increase global awareness of the need for policy changes as well as establishing peace in the refugees’ homelands.
Factors Contributing to Protracted Refugee Situations
The instability and continued threats in home countries result in the prolonged stay of refugees in Kenyan refugee camps. If a refugee’s home country continues to pose a threat or is incapable of providing a safe environment for the refugee to return to, the practice of non-refoulement prohibits the return of refugees to their countries of origin, leaving them to wait in a host country like Kenya until resettlement becomes an option.
The majority of refugees in Kenya (53.7% as of March 2020) are from Somalia. Violence in Somalia initiated by the militant rebel group Al-Shabab has led to altercations with the Somali government forces, and civilians often become collateral of such hostile encounters. As refugees within the Kenyan camps continue to hear of these humanitarian crises occurring in their homeland, they are not likely nor able to return home and thus extend their stays in these camps until alternative options are made available to them, thus becoming protracted refugees.
Of all the refugees and asylum seekers in Kenya as of March 2020, 24.7% are South Sudanese, meaning that refugee population would necessitate returning to the conflict area of South Sudan. Many refugees who had fled South Sudan to the camps at the onset of these conflicts are likely now reaching their seventh year without repatriation.
Challenges in Resettlement
Resettlement rates for refugees within Kenyan camps are very low and the countries in which protracted refugees would resettle have lowered quotas, therefore decreasing the accessibility of resettlement. While refugees hope for resettlement in many situations, less than 1% of refugees around the world are resettled each year.
Impact of Social Isolation and Lack of Economic Opportunities
Feelings of isolation imposed on the refugees through official policies, as well as the complex social strata of the camps, hinder refugees’ abilities to reestablish their identity and inhibit their work towards self-sufficiency, leading to protracted situations.
Kenya’s refugee camps, specifically those of Dadaab and Kakuma, are purposefully built far from local cities or marketplaces. This purposeful separation of refugees from other citizens of the country serves to perpetuate the idea of “us” versus “them” and fuels xenophobic sentiments. Policies enacted in 2012 pushed urban-dwelling refugees into the refugee camps, further publicizing the government’s support for the separation.
By failing to provide opportunities for the refugees to become economically self-reliant, Kenyan refugee camps perpetuate protracted refugee situations. Refugees within these camps must continue to find economic support from outside parties, rather than building their own self-sufficiency. Without the means to leave the camp or reestablish themselves elsewhere, refugees prolong their stay in the camp, which leads to protracted refugee situations.
Economic Restrictions and Informal Economies
Many refugees in camps are unable to hold a job, and they are subsequently held back by law from creating their own working economy or marketplace. These restraints prevent any indication of permanence. However, these laws also create a systemic form of poverty and idleness that does not allow hope for the population of refugees to eventually integrate.
Citing security reasons, Kenyan authorities called for restricted movement of refugees in and out of the camps. This restricted movement and anti-refugee sentiment stops much economic integration with local Kenyans, as refugees who leave the camps without authorization face the possibility of 6-month jail time and a fine of 20,000 Kenyan shillings (roughly $200 USD). Moreover, it is also illegal for refugees to work in Kenya without a work permit.
Even though all of the economic production in the Kenyan camps are unofficial, they are accredited with an annual turnover rate of about $25 million USD. These numbers validate the idea that refugees are producing members of Kenya’s economy, but a lack of work permits and recognized citizenship leave them with few claims to economic rights or opportunities.
Resource Demands and Funding Shortages
With more refugees coming in and very few leaving, protracted refugees require resources that must be provided by outside sources for an extended period of time. Refugee camps demand a significant amount of money to maintain, and protracted refugee situations increase the long-term demand for resources.
Camps are expected to supply enough food, water, shelter, healthcare, and clothes for all of the people under their care. The money needed to supply these necessities often comes from donors, typically national governments who partner with the UN Refugee Agency. However, with the increase in protracted refugee populations worldwide, there is still not enough aid to adequately support all the camps even with donations.
Kenya is a lower-middle income country with limited resources to allocate to the camps and must therefore rely predominantly on donations. However, when refugee situations become prolonged, outside donations often slow as international attention in the media decreases.
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