Handel's Giulio Cesare in Egitto is a fascinating blend of historical fact and dramatic fiction. The opera draws from real events in the lives of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra, but it takes significant liberties to enhance its theatrical appeal.
The Meeting between Cleopatra and Octavian after the Battle of Actium, 1787-1788, by Louis Gauffier (1761-1801)
Historical Setting and Characters
The opera accurately situates the story during Caesar's pursuit of Pompey to Egypt around 48-47 BCE. The central figures of the opera-Julius Caesar, Cleopatra, and Tolomeo XIII-are all historical figures. The dynamics between them, especially the alliance and romantic involvement between Caesar and Cleopatra, are grounded in historical accounts. The opera captures the intense political maneuvering that characterized this period.
Key Historical Events
- The Assassination of Pompey: One of the pivotal moments in the opera is the assassination of Pompey, which is historically accurate. Pompey sought refuge in Egypt after his defeat by Caesar but was treacherously murdered by the Egyptians who hoped to gain Caesar’s favor.
- Caesar's Alliance with Cleopatra: Historically, Julius Caesar did indeed support Cleopatra's claim to the Egyptian throne against her brother Tolomeo XIII. Their alliance was both political and romantic, leading to Cleopatra's consolidation of power in Egypt.
- Depiction of Egyptian Political Turmoil: The opera accurately reflects the political instability in Egypt at the time, particularly the power struggle between Cleopatra and Tolomeo XIII.
Dramatic Liberties and Characterizations
While the opera is rooted in historical events, it also takes dramatic liberties to enhance its theatrical appeal. The portrayal of Tolomeo XIII as a one-dimensional tyrant and Cleopatra as the quintessential seductress simplifies the complex nature of their historical personas. Historically, Cleopatra is recognized as a shrewd and politically astute ruler, whose relationship with Caesar was as much about securing her throne as it was about romance. In the opera, however, Cleopatra’s character is heavily romanticized, emphasizing her allure and seduction over her political acumen. The opera introduces fictional elements and characters, such as the eunuch Nireno, who serves Cleopatra and assists in her schemes.
The opera portrays Caesar as both a heroic and romantic figure, which aligns with the conventions of opera seria. However, the historical Caesar was a more complex character, whose actions in Egypt were driven by broader strategic goals in the context of the Roman Civil War. The opera compresses and simplifies the timeline of events for dramatic purposes.
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English Touring Opera's production of Giulio Cesare
Musical Structure and Composition
Giulio Cesare was written in the Baroque era (c. 1600-1750). The score is broken up into arias and recitative. During the arias, the plot is paused and a character expresses their feelings in that moment, providing the audience a window into that character’s soul. The connecting recitative (which is essentially sung speech performed with ‘continuo’ such as harpsichord accompanying the singers), contains the plot development. Certain arias, such as Sesto’s ‘Svegliativi nel core’, follow a popular format of the time known as ‘da capo’ (literally ‘from the top’). This means that the first section returns at the end, but with added musical ornaments improvised on the spot by the singer.
Handel’s Cleopatra is a particularly complex character. She has six arias, each written to display a different facet of her personality - coquettishness, vulnerability, grief, joy, and more. The orchestration for each supports this: her seductive aria ‘V’adoro pupille’ (‘I adore you, eyes’) is scored for a second set of instruments behind the scenes, contrasting with the orchestra in the pit and ravishing the audience’s ears as well as Cesare’s!
Key Musical Elements
- Arias: Pauses in the plot where characters express their feelings.
- Recitative: Sung speech that advances the plot.
- Da Capo Arias: A musical form where the first section returns with improvised ornaments.
Historical Context and Popularity
Giulio Cesare premiered at the King’s Theatre, Haymarket in February 1724 (Handel’s main ‘shopfront’ at the time). The opening run was a sensation, with the house just as full at the seventh performance as at the first. Today, it is one of, if not THE, most frequently performed Handel operas. Several of the male characters in Giulio Cesare can be sung either by a mezzo-soprano (female) or a countertenor (male singing in falsetto voice). These roles were originally sung by ‘castrati’. Because of the way their bodies developed, ‘castrati’ had unrivalled lung capacity and extremely flexible voices, and were the opera superstars of the day. The practise of castration to produce singers was eventually made illegal.
Giulio Cesare in Egitto (Julius Caesar in Egypt) was the only opera that Handel composed for the 1723-24 season of his Royal Academy, but it was a huge work and a masterpiece. The production ran for an impressive thirteen performances and was then revived (with revisions) in the following season and again in 1730 and 1732. It was soon performed elsewhere in Europe and, particularly in Germany, became Handel's most popular opera.
Thematic Elements and Legacy
Even in opera’s earliest days, there was a glut of Cleopatra-inspired content. The narrative of her femininity helped fuel larger narratives, namely that of Orientalism. Cleopatra’s various appearances throughout opera offer a lens onto those attitudes.
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This story would remain one of Handel’s most popular, a Baroque masterpiece that testifies to a composer hitting his stride. But Handel’s Giulio Cesare in Egitto didn’t exist in a bubble. Jules Massenet was part of that legacy. His first major Parisian success, The King of Lahore, tells the story of a forbidden love between a priestess and a king in what would be modern-day Pakistan. Massenet would return to Egypt in his final years, as he wrote his opera Cléopâtre, posthumously performed in 1914.
Production Design and Staging
This stunning production by Tim Albery has a multifaceted set (designed by Leslie Travers), which provides the backdrop for both a world of war and a world of sensuality. The stage begins dominated by a Brutalist concrete barrier, which then revolves to reveal the inside of a glittering pyramid - a tomb of gold with a labyrinth of connecting passages within. Costumes paint the culture clash between the Romans and the Egyptians.
Orchestration
The opera is scored for transverse flute, two alto recorders, two oboes, two bassoons, four horns, viola da gamba, harp, theorbo, strings and continuo. The basic orchestra consists of oboes, strings and continuo. The horns, divided into four parts, are used in the opening and closing choruses. Other obbligato instruments are used to add orchestral colour to individual arias: a hunting horn for Cesare's aria "Va tacito"; divided alto recorders for the central largo section of Sesto's "Svegliativi nel core"; solo concertato violin and divided bassoons in Cesare's aria "Se in fierto"; alto recorders in unison for Cornelia's aria "Cesa omai"; a solo violin for Cleopatra's aria "Venere bella"; sustained bassoons in unison for Cleopatra's aria "Se pieta"; transverse flute, first violins and obbligato cello for Cleopatra's aria "Piangero"; divided strings for Cesare's arioso-aria "Aure de per pieta".
The most elaborate and ravishing orchestration occurs at the beginning of act 2 in Cleopatra's aria "V'adoro, pupille" sung in the guise of Lidia to seduce Cesare. On stage there is a tableau of the Temple of Virtue, below Mount Parnassus with a second orchestra or "symphony" of nine instruments played by the muses, with muted strings in the pit.
Table: Key Characters and Their Vocal Ranges
| Character | Vocal Range | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Giulio Cesare | Alto Castrato (now Mezzo-Soprano or Countertenor) | Roman Emperor, both heroic and romantic. |
| Cleopatra | Soprano | Queen of Egypt, portrayed as both seductive and politically astute. |
| Tolomeo XIII | Alto Castrato (now Countertenor) | Co-ruler of Egypt, portrayed as a tyrant. |
| Cornelia | Contralto | Widow of Pompey, seeking vengeance. |
| Sesto | Soprano (Trouser Role) | Son of Cornelia and Pompey, determined to avenge his father's death. |
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