The history of trade in Africa is as rich and diverse as the continent itself. Among the earliest and most prosperous trading empires in Africa was the Empire of Ghana, often considered the first major trading empire in sub-Saharan Africa. This empire flourished between the 6th and 13th centuries and became a central hub for trans-Saharan trade, especially known for its wealth in gold. Despite its name, Ancient Ghana is not related to modern-day Ghana, which lies farther south. The empire’s real name was Wagadou, and it was established by the Soninke people, a Mandé-speaking group. The Ghana Empire, called the Wagadou (or Wagadu) Empire by its rulers, was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania, western Mali, and eastern Senegal.
Ghana's location on the edge of the Sahara gave it a strategic advantage, allowing it to act as an intermediary between the Arab traders of North Africa and the peoples of West Africa. The earliest author to mention Ghana is the Persian astronomer Ibrahim al-Fazari, who, writing at the end of the eighth century, refers to “the territory of Ghana, the land of gold.”
Map of Africa in 1000 AD showing the Ghana Empire
The Foundation of Ghana’s Economy: Gold-Salt Trade
The backbone of Ghana’s economy was its gold-salt trade. Gold, mined in the regions to the south, particularly Bambuk, was transported north to trade with Arab merchants who brought salt from the Sahara. Ghana was also a pivotal player in the trans-Saharan trade routes, which linked the Arab world, the Mediterranean, and sub-Saharan Africa. By the time of the Muslim conquest of North Africa in the 7th century, the camel had changed the earlier, more irregular trade routes into a trade network running from Morocco to the Niger River.
The rulers of Ghana grew wealthy not just from direct trade but also by taxing goods that passed through their territories. He noted that merchants had to pay a one gold dinar tax on imports of salt and two on exports of salt. Al-Bakri mentioned also copper and “other goods.” Imports probably included products such as textiles and ornaments.
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Besides trade, Ghana also had a thriving agriculture sector, supported by the Niger River. The Soninke people were adept at cultivating crops, which helped sustain their large populations.
The King and the Capital
The empire of Ghana was ruled by a powerful king known as the "Ghana," who held supreme authority. The king controlled the gold trade and ensured the empire's wealth was concentrated in the hands of the elite. Ghana appears to have had a central core region and was surrounded by vassal states. One of the earliest sources, al-Ya’qubi, writing in 889/890 (276 AH), noted that “under the king’s authority are a number of kings.” These “kings” were presumably the rulers of the territorial units often called kafu in Mandinka.
The capital city of Ghana, Kumbi Saleh, was actually two towns a few kilometers apart. According to the description of the town left by Al-Bakri in 1067/1068, the capital was actually two cities, but “between these two towns are continuous habitations,” so they might have merged into one. One was a Muslim town where Arab traders resided, and the other housed the royal court and the indigenous Soninke people. According to al-Bakri, the major part of the city was called El-Ghaba, and was the residence of the king. It was protected by a stone wall and functioned as the royal and spiritual capital of the empire.
It contained a sacred grove of trees used for Soninke religious rites in which priests lived. It also contained the king’s palace, the grandest structure in the city. There was also one mosque for visiting Muslim officials. The name of the other section of the city is not recorded. It was surrounded by wells with fresh water, where vegetables were grown. It had twelve mosques, one of which was designated for Friday prayers, and had a full group of scholars, scribes, and Islamic jurists.
Reconstruction of Koumbi Saleh
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Islam's Influence
With the rise of the trans-Saharan trade came increased contact with Arab merchants, many of whom were Muslim. Over time, Islam began to influence Ghana, particularly in the urban centers where trade took place. From the 9th century, Arab authors mention the Ghana Empire in connection with the trans-Saharan gold trade.
Decline and Legacy
The decline of Ghana began in the late 11th century.
- Invasions: The Almoravid dynasty, a Muslim Berber group, invaded Ghana around 1076.
- Overextension: As the empire expanded, it became harder to manage.
Given scarce Arabic sources and the ambiguity of the existing archaeological record, it is difficult to determine when and how Ghana declined and fell. According to Arab tradition, Ghana fell when it was sacked by the Almoravid movement in 1076-1077, but this interpretation has been questioned. It is assumed that the ensuing war pushed Ghana over the edge, ending the kingdom’s position as a commercial and military power by 1100.
Despite its eventual decline, the Empire of Ghana left a lasting legacy. It paved the way for the great empires of Mali and Songhai, both of which would continue the tradition of wealth and power through control of the gold and salt trade routes. The Empire of Ghana was important because of its strategic position on the trans-Saharan trade routes, allowing it to control and tax trade between North and West Africa. Its dominance of the gold and salt trade left an indelible mark on both African and world history.
The Rise and Fall of the Ghana Empire
Trans-Saharan Trade
Trans-Saharan trade is trade between sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa that requires travel across the Sahara. Though this trade began in prehistoric times, the peak of trade extended from the 8th century until the early 17th century CE. Trade was conducted by caravans of camels. According to Maghrebi explorer Ibn Battuta, who once traveled with a caravan, an average one would amount to 1,000 camels, but some caravans were as large as 12,000. Culture and religion were also exchanged on the trans-Saharan trade routes.
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Several trade routes became established, perhaps the most important terminating in Sijilmasa (Morocco) and Ifriqiya to the north. Unlike Ghana, Mali was a Muslim kingdom since its foundation, and under it, the gold-salt trade continued. Other, less important trade goods were slaves, kola nuts from the south and slave beads and cowry shells from the north (for use as currency). It was under Mali that the great cities of the Niger bend-including Gao and Djenné-prospered, with Timbuktu in particular becoming known across Europe for its great wealth.
The spread of Islam to sub-Saharan African was linked to trans-Saharan trade. Islam established common values and rules upon which trade was conducted. Muslim merchants conducting commerce also gradually spread Islam along their trade network.
| Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
| Main Trade Goods | Gold and salt |
| Taxation | Rulers taxed goods passing through their territories |
| Strategic Importance | Control of trans-Saharan trade routes |
| Capital City | Kumbi Saleh (divided into Muslim and Soninke sections) |
| Legacy | Paved the way for Mali and Songhai empires |
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