This study documents existing knowledge on traditional fruits, vegetables, and pulses in Kenya and Ethiopia. The aim was to identify neglected and underutilized species with high potential for food security, for their economic value and contribution to sustainable agriculture, based on a literature review and confirmation of existing data by local experts.
Indigenous food plants are plants that have evolved naturally in a specific bio-region in conjunction with those that were introduced into the region and adapted so well that they have become an integral part of the local food culture.
The term “traditional food plants” is often used to indicate that the plants have been consumed in a region for several centuries. What is important is not so much the terminology used but the fact that the modes of cultivation, collection, preparation, and consumption of the food plants are deeply embedded in local cuisine, culture, folklore, and language.
Many traditional food plants are not included in local and national diets and consequently remain either neglected or underutilized. They are termed “neglected” if they are grown primarily in their centers of origin or centers of diversity by traditional farmers, where they remain important for the subsistence of local communities, and they are termed “underutilized” if they were once more extensively grown but have fallen into disuse for a variety of agronomic, genetic, economic, and cultural reasons.
In either case, these traditional food plants have received little or no attention from agricultural researchers, plant breeders or policy makers. Fruits, vegetables, and pulses form the basis of dietary diversity, particularly as the primary sources of important vitamins, minerals, protein and fibers, which are insufficiently supplied and whose dietary intakes are consequently often inadequate in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where the consumption of fruits, vegetables, and pulses is either insufficient or declining.
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In SSA, food accounts for a very large proportion of the household budget, for example, for 56% in Ethiopia, and 58% in Kenya. During the period 2017 to 2019, the cost of a healthy diet in Africa underwent the highest increase (13%) in the world. To alleviate hunger, households are forced to prioritize staple foods while more expensive nutrition-dense food such as fruits, vegetables, and pulses are considered unaffordable.
According to Harris et al., poor availability, accessibility, affordability, and preferences affect the inclusion of fruits, vegetables, and pulses in household diets and there is consequently an enormous deficit in the consumption of these foods in SSA. To obtain the health and nutrition benefits of fruits and vegetables it is recommended to consume at least 400 g each day or 5 servings of 80 g each. Moreover, fruits, vegetables, and pulses should be consumed in different varieties and if possible, above the recommended amounts.
The present study focuses on neglected and underutilized species with a high potential for food security, for their economic value and their contribution to sustainable agriculture. First, a list of available species of traditional fruit trees, leafy vegetables, and pulses in Ethiopia and Kenya was created based on existing plant databases and was confirmed by local experts.
The aim was to fill the gap concerning easily accessible country-specific species, particularly using accepted scientific names in the World Flora Online (WFO) database. The rich biodiversity of traditional food plants in the two countries was apparent at first glance. The species list that was generated a great help in tackling the nomenclature confusion in the literature caused by use of different scientific synonyms for the same plant species.
Since not all traditional fruits, vegetables, or pulses are equally attractive for nutritional, economic and agronomic reasons, several criteria were used to identify, rank, select and prioritize species based on their nutritional, economic and agronomic traits, among other benefits. Based on literature review, existing scientific and indigenous knowledge of traditional fruits, vegetables and pulses was documented and was confirmed by local experts from Kenya and Ethiopia.
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In this study, the primary selection criterion of the top 5 species was food security and economic potential; the second selection criterion was contribution to ecosystem resilience. Candidate plant species were identified based on their unique nutritional, economic, and agronomic attributes. For traditional fruit trees, the frequency of being included among the top priority 5 species in past prioritization studies informed a mutual decision on the most potential species.
Five traditional fruit trees are frequently and consistently selected among the top 5 priority species in Kenya. In order of priority, these include Tamarindus indica L., Adansonia digitata L., Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst, Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile, and Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.
Other important traditional fruit trees but less frequently ranked among the top 5 priority species include Ximenia americana L., Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl., Ancylobothrys tayloris (Stapf) Pichon, and Vitex doniana Sweet. In Ethiopia, the top 5 priority species include, Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile, Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf., Cordeauxia edulis Hemsl., Cordia africana Lam., and Mimusops kummel A. DC.
Other important priority species ranked among the top 5 species include Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst., and Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. There has been no systematic prioritization study covering the entire African continent due to its diverse ecology, farming systems, and vast geographical area. However, based on the extent of their market and preferences, the priority fruit trees that are available across regions of the continent include Adansonia digitata L., Tamarindus indica L., Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf., Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst., and Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile.
Traditional leafy vegetable species in Kenya and Ethiopia were selected based on their economic and nutritional potential. In Kenya, the top 5 species are Amaranthus spp., Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp., Solanum spp., and Cleome gynandra L. In Ethiopia, they include Brassica carinata A. Braun, Cucurbita pepo L., and Amaranthus spp.
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The top 10 most cited priority traditional leafy vegetables in Kenya and Ethiopia are listed in Table 3.
As there have been no prioritization studies on pulses in Kenya and Ethiopia to date, available traditional pulse species were categorized based on past research on (1) mainstreamed pulses that have been the subject of significant research and are the most widely grown and consumed, (2) neglected, underutilized, and promising future pulses that adapt particular well to environments and provide multipurpose services, (3) neglected and underutilized pulses for mainstreaming into agri-food systems, (4) other potential neglected and underutilized pulses (Table 4).
Based on multi-purposes, nutrient value, market prospects, and their contribution to ecosystem resilience, the top 6 priority long-life cycle pulse species for future research and promotion include Phaseolus lunatus L., Sphenostylis stenocarpa (A.Rich.) Harms, Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC., Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet, and Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.
The above priority traditional fruit trees, leafy vegetables, and pulses are usually described as having several household uses that could help fill existing nutritional and economic gaps, cultural needs and preferences, as well as contribute to sustainable agriculture through ecosystem resilience.
The priority species provide edible fruits, shoots, leaves, flowers and seeds that are good sources of important vitamins and minerals whose dietary intake is often inadequate in SSA. Moreover, both food and non-food food products rank high economically and could therefore serve as a safety net by enhancing household purchasing power for food items that are not included in local subsistence production. Priorities are also climate resistance, local availability, adaptability to arid and semi-arid conditions, compatibility with other crops, and capacity to contribute to ecosystem resilience and sustainable agriculture.
SSA contains a large number of under-exploited traditional plant species that are of high nutritional value and could therefore play a significant role in diversifying diets at local, national and international level. Both the food and non-food products of these species have high market value that could diversify sources of household income and hence, access to food markets. Some traditional food plants are often available in periods when most of the food stocks are used up and new crops are not ready to harvest.
As a result, their consumption increases as stocks of staple crops decline and hence, they play an important nutritional and economic role in filling seasonal gaps. Traditional food plants could also contribute positively to the ecosystem resilience of existing farming systems by providing green manure, nitrogen-fixing abilities, increasing soil phosphorous availability, and helping control soil erosion, parasitic weeds, nematodes, pests and diseases.
These plants are also well adapted to diverse and contrasting climates, cold or heat, droughts or floods, and poor quality soils, and also show good resistance to pests and diseases. Compared to large-scale conventional staple crops, most under-exploited traditional food plants are available locally, easy to grow, require simpler technologies and fewer inputs of fertilizer and pesticide and hence, are less damaging to the environment while addressing the cultural needs of indigenous society.
Integrating the wealth of diverse traditional food plants into local food systems thus has great potential, and given the current coexisting issues of malnutrition, climate change, and degradation of agricultural soils in SSA, traditional food plants have the potential to create new value chains provided there is a significant...
The banana is well distributed throughout tropical Africa, but it is intensively cultivated as an irrigated enterprise in Somalia, Uganda, Tanzania, Angola, and Madagascar. Also widely cultivated is the pineapple, which is produced as a cash crop in Côte d’Ivoire, the Congo basin, Kenya, and South Africa.
A typical tree of desert oases, the date palm is most frequently cultivated in Egypt, Sudan, and the other countries of North Africa. The fig and olive are limited to North Africa, with about two-thirds of the olive production being processed into olive oil.
The principal orange-growing regions are the southern coast of South Africa and the Mediterranean coast of North Africa, as well as Ghana, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Madagascar. The largest yields are produced in countries where basin irrigation is practiced. South Africa is the largest producer of grapefruit, followed by Sudan.
Tomatoes and onions are grown widely, but the largest-producing areas border the Mediterranean. Large vegetables, such as cabbages and cauliflowers, are grown in the same region, from where it is possible to export some quantities to southern Europe. Important vegetables of tropical Africa include peppers, okra, eggplants, cucumbers, and watermelons.
Tea, coffee, cocoa, and grapes are all grown in Africa. Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique are the largest producers of tea, while Ethiopia, Uganda, Côte d’Ivoire, Tanzania, and Madagascar are the major producers of coffee. Cocoa is essentially a tropical forest crop. Its cultivation is concentrated in western Africa, with the principal producers being Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and Cameroon.
All these crops are largely grown for export. Sharp price fluctuations caused African countries to form international cartels with other producing countries in an effort to regulate the market and negotiate better prices. Grapes are produced in northern Africa and in South Africa, essentially for the making of wine for European markets.
Large areas of Africa raise cotton for textile manufacture. The principal producing countries include Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Egypt, Zimbabwe, and Mali. Sisal production is also important, especially in the eastern African countries of Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya, and Madagascar, as well as in Mozambique, Angola, and South Africa.
Some countries, notably Nigeria, promote the cultivation of kenaf (one of the bast fibres). The oil palm, producing palm oil and palm kernels, grows widely in secondary bush in the tropical forest zones. There are large plantations in Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Coconuts are important in the Comoros, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Mozambique, Nigeria, and Tanzania.
Kola nuts are grown principally in the forested regions of Nigeria, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. The cashew tree is grown to a limited extent in East Africa and to a lesser extent in the coastal countries of western Africa. Rubber is produced principally in Nigeria and Liberia. Tobacco is widely cultivated as an export crop in Zimbabwe, Malawi, Tanzania, Nigeria, and South Africa.
Sugarcane is also widely grown but largely for domestic consumption. Major producers include South Africa, Egypt, Mauritius, and Sudan. Cattle, sheep, and goats form the bulk of livestock raised. Except in South Africa, most of these animals are raised essentially for meat.
Sheep in the north and south are also kept for their wool; South Africa alone produces half of the entire continental production, much of the clip from Merino or crossbred Merino sheep. In the tropical areas, however, other livestock products include hides and skins.
It is estimated that the annual output of hides is in the range of 10 percent of the total population of cattle, while that of sheepskins and goatskins is approximately 25 percent. The number of game hides and skins processed and sold annually is not accurately known.
Except in South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Kenya, production of milk and milk products is grossly insufficient to meet domestic needs. Poultry production, however, has increased tremendously, and everywhere stocks have nearly doubled since the 1960s. Nigeria, Ethiopia, Morocco, South Africa, and Sudan are the countries with the largest poultry stocks.
Fishing is important on the local level in all countries bordering the sea or inland bodies of water. Commercial ocean fishing is practiced most widely by the countries near the rich fishing grounds of the west coast-South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Nigeria, Ghana, Senegal, and Morocco.
Herring, sardines, and anchovies contribute most to the ocean catch, followed by jack, mullets, sauries, redfish, bass, and conger in tropical waters and cod, hake, haddock, tuna, bonitas, and bullfish in northern and southern waters. Inland countries with well-developed fisheries include Malawi, Uganda, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, and Mali; tilapia and other cichlids constitute the largest catch in inland waters.
Some countries, such as Nigeria, have developed both marine and freshwater fishing industries. A number of commissions have been established to monitor and control fishery development on the continent.
The countries of North Africa, unlike those of the rest of the continent, have wide-ranging and ancient traditions of manufacture. At the end of the 19th century, however, Africa as a whole was regarded solely as a potential source of raw materials or as a natural market for Europe.
In the course of time, limited industrialization tended to converge around the relatively large expatriate settlements, where technical considerations operated in favour of the industrialization of some areas and transport costs constituted the dominant development factor in others.
Though World War II led to acceleration in the process of industrial development, by 1950 the total factory output of manufacturing industries (excluding South Africa) still remained small. After 1950 output rapidly increased.
The substantial increase and its range were attributable to such factors as increased demand, the substitution of home-produced for imported goods, the encouragement of manufacturing by individual African administrations, and an influx of development capital and petrodollars.
Major weaknesses nevertheless were evident, among them high capital costs, the political division of Africa into more than 50 countries, which inhibited mass production and mass marketing, and a scarcity of skilled personnel.
Despite its expansion since about 1950, the relative significance of manufacturing remains considerably smaller than in the more-advanced countries and smaller also than in continental Asia and in Latin America. Furthermore, the share of manufacturing in the gross domestic product varies widely in different African countries.
At the lower end of the spectrum are countries such as Equatorial Guinea, Guinea, and Niger, and at the upper end of the spectrum are countries such as Egypt, Algeria, and South Africa. The total output of manufacturing in South Africa alone, however, is nearly 50 percent of the output in the remainder of the continent.
Manufacturing in Africa tends to concentrate on comparatively simple items and on those where some special advantage is available to the African producer, although the range of products has widened. Industrial production includes electric motors, transport equipment, and tractors, while airplanes are also assembled.
The leading heavy industries are chemical and petroleum, coal, rubber, and metal manufacture. Most industrial plants, however, are of the relatively simple kind, being engaged in food processing or in manufacturing textiles, leather products, and cement or other building materials.
The mining industry is an increasingly significant source of national income, foreign exchange, and raw materials for the development of local processing industries. The industry is very unevenly distributed: more than half of mineral earnings came from North Africa alone, and nearly one-fourth came from Southern Africa.
Except in South Africa, iron and steel are used mostly for construction rather than for engineering. There are integrated iron and steel plants in Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, while smaller production facilities-often based on the transformation of scrap-exist in several other countries.
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