The Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), also known as the red jackal, Simien jackal, or Simien fox, is a canid native to the Ethiopian Highlands. In southeastern Ethiopia, it is also known as the horse jackal.
The Ethiopian wolf is listed as endangered by the IUCN, on account of its small numbers and fragmented range. The Ethiopian wolf was recognised as requiring protection in 1938, and received it in 1974.
Taxonomy and Evolution
Is the Ethiopian Wolf a Real Wolf?
Whether the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) is a real wolf seems to be a matter of what is considered a “real wolf,” and biologists do not appear to be in agreement on this. Generally, scientists agree that the gray wolf (Canis lupus) and the red wolf (Canis rufus) are wolves but do not consider the coyote (Canis latrans) or the black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) wolves.
Biologists agree that the Ethiopian wolf at least belongs to the genus Canis, with its scientific name, Canis simensis. Both Canis simensis and Canis aureus inhabit Ethiopia, and geneticists consider both to be similar to the gray wolf.
The Ethiopian wolf (C. simensis), once thought to be closely related to the jackal, is actually more closely related to the gray wolf and coyote than any African canid. This conclusion was reached through phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA sequencing.
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In 2015, a study of mitochondrial genome sequences and whole genome nuclear sequences of African and Eurasian canids indicated that extant wolf-like canids have colonised Africa from Eurasia at least five times throughout the Pliocene and Pleistocene, which is consistent with fossil evidence suggesting that much of African canid fauna diversity resulted from the immigration of Eurasian ancestors, likely coincident with Plio-Pleistocene climatic oscillations between arid and humid conditions.
In 2018, whole genome sequencing was used to compare members of the genus Canis. The study supports the African golden wolf being distinct from the golden jackal, and with the Ethiopian wolf being genetically basal to both. There is evidence of gene flow between the eastern population and the Ethiopian wolf, which has led to the eastern population being distinct from the northwestern population. This suggests that Ethiopian wolves - or an extinct close relative - once had a much larger range within Africa to admix with other canids.
Evolutionary History
The earliest known fossil of the Ethiopian wolf is known from the Melka Wakena paleoanthropological site-complex in the Southeastern Ethiopian Highlands. Due to the high density of rodents in their new Afroalpine habitat, the ancestors of the Ethiopian wolf gradually developed into specialised rodent hunters. This specialisation is reflected in the animal's skull morphology, with its very elongated head, long jaw, and widely spaced teeth. During this period, the species likely attained its highest abundance, and had a relatively continuous distribution.
The Ethiopian wolf is one of five Canis species present in Africa, and is readily distinguishable from jackals by its larger size, relatively longer legs, distinct reddish coat, and white markings.
Physical Characteristics
This medium sized canid has a reddish coat, distinctive white markings throughout the body and black markings on the tail, long legs and an elongated muzzle. The contrast of white markings against the red coat increases with age and social rank in both sexes.
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The Ethiopian wolf is similar in size and build to North America's coyote; it is larger than the black-backed jackal and side-striped jackals as well as the African wolf and has comparatively longer legs. Its skull is very flat, with a long facial region accounting for 58% of the skull's total length. The ears are broad, pointed, and directed forward. The teeth, particularly the premolars, are small and widely spaced. The canine teeth measure 14-22 mm in length, while the carnassials are relatively small.
The Ethiopian wolf has short guard hairs and thick underfur, which provides protection at temperatures as low as −15 °C. Its overall colour is ochre to rusty red, with dense whitish to pale ginger underfur. The fur of the throat, chest and underparts is white, with a distinct white band occurring around the sides of the neck. There is a sharp boundary between the red coat and white marks. The ears are thickly furred on the edges, though naked on the inside. The naked borders of the lips, the gums and palate are black. The lips, a small spot on the cheeks and an ascending crescent below the eyes are white. The thickly furred tail is white underneath, and has a black tip, though, unlike most other canids, there is no dark patch marking the supracaudal gland.
Adults measure 841-1,012 mm (33.1-39.8 in) in body length, and 530-620 mm (21-24 in) in height. As is typical in the genus Canis, males are larger than females, having 20% greater body mass.
It moults during the wet season (August-October), and there is no evident seasonal variation in coat colour, though the contrast between the red coat and white markings increases with age and social rank. Females tend to have paler coats than males.
Habitat and Distribution
Ethiopian wolves are endemic to the Ethiopian highlands, above the tree line at about 3,200m. The only records of these wolves below 3,000m were specimens collected at 2,500m from Gojjam and north-western Shoa (north-west and central Ethiopia) at the beginning of the century.
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The habitat of these wolves is confined to Afro-alpine grasslands and heathlands at about 3,200m-4,500m where they prey on Afroalpine rodents. Subsistence agriculture reaches up to 3,500-3,800m in many areas and often restricts wolves to higher ranges. Wolves prefer flat or gently sloping open areas with low vegetation, deep soils and poor drainage in parts where rodents are most abundant.
The Ethiopian wolf is restricted to isolated pockets of Afroalpine grasslands and heathlands inhabited by Afroalpine rodents. Its ideal habitat extends from above the tree line around 3,200 to 4,500 m, with some wolves inhabiting the Bale Mountains being present in montane grasslands at 3,000 m. Although specimens were collected in Gojjam and northwestern Shoa at 2,500 m in the early 20th century, no recent records exist of the species occurring below 3,000 m.
The Ethiopian wolf uses all Afroalpine habitats, but has a preference for open areas containing short herbaceous and grassland communities inhabited by rodents, which are most abundant along flat or gently sloping areas with poor drainage and deep soils. Prime wolf habitat in the Bale Mountains consists of short Alchemilla herbs and grasses, with low vegetation cover. Other favourable habitats consist of tussock grasslands, high-altitude scrubs rich in Helichrysum, and short grasslands growing in shallow soils.
Six current Ethiopian wolf populations are known. North of the Rift Valley, the species occurs in the Simien Mountains in Gondar, in the northern and southern Wollo highlands, and in Guassa Menz in north Shoa. It has recently become extinct in Gosh Meda in north Shoa and Mount Guna, and has not been reported in Mount Choqa for several decades.
Diet and Hunting Behavior
Rodents account for 96% of all prey occurrences in Ethiopian wolf scat. Eighty-seven percent of the rodents consumed consist of three main species: the giant molerat, Blick’s grass rat and the black-clawed brush-furred rat. Other prey include typical vlei rat, yellow spotted brush-furred rat, Starck’s hare, and goslings and eggs, rock hyrax, young common duiker, reedbuck and mountain nyala.
In the Bale Mountains, the Ethiopian wolf's primary prey are big-headed African mole-rats, though it also feeds on grass rats, black-clawed brush-furred rats, and highland hares. Other secondary prey species include vlei rats, yellow-spotted brush-furred rats, and occasionally goslings and eggs. Ethiopian wolves have twice been observed to feed on rock hyraxes, and mountain nyala calves. It will also prey on reedbuck calves. In areas where the big-headed African mole-rat is absent, the smaller Northeast African mole-rat is targeted.
In the Simien Mountains, the Ethiopian wolf preys on Abyssinian grass rats. Undigested sedge leaves have occasionally been found in Ethiopian wolf stomachs. The sedge possibly is ingested for roughage or for parasite control. It has also been observed to consume nectar from the flowers of Kniphofia foliosa.
Prey is usually captured by digging it out of burrows. The Ethiopian wolf is most amusing to watch when hunting. Wolves in Bale have been observed to forage among cattle herds, a tactic thought to aid in ambushing rodents out of their holes by using the cattle to hide their presence. Ethiopian wolves have also been observed forming temporary associations with troops of grazing geladas. Solitary wolves hunt for rodents in the midst of the monkeys, ignoring juvenile monkeys, though these are similar in size to some of their prey. The monkeys, in turn, tolerate and largely ignore the wolves, although they take flight if they observe feral dogs, which sometimes prey on them.
The species may scavenge on carcasses, but is usually displaced by free-ranging dogs and African golden wolves.
What Is The Difference Between Dire Wolf And Gray Wolf?
Social Behavior and Reproduction
Social interactions and communication between Ethiopian wolves is similar to other wolf species with an average pack size of 3-13 individuals. However, males rarely disperse and are instead recruited into multi-male philopatric packs. Sexually mature females are the main dispersers and have strictly limited movements for lack of habitat. These females look for openings in packs, often packs with deceased breeding females.
Average pack territory is 6.0-13.2 square km with some overlapping ranges. Females may accept courting from males within the pack or neighboring packs. Preference is shown to the dominant male in the pack although, studies have found that 70% of matings involved males from outside the pack.
The Ethiopian wolf is a social animal, living in family groups containing up to 20 adults (individuals older than one year), though packs of six wolves are more common. Packs are formed by dispersing males and a few females, which with the exception of the breeding female, are reproductively suppressed. Each pack has a well-established hierarchy, with dominance and subordination displays being common.
These packs live in communal territories, which encompass 6 km2 (2.3 sq mi) of land on average. In areas with little food, the species lives in pairs, sometimes accompanied by pups, and defends larger territories averaging 13.4 km2 (5.2 sq mi). In the absence of disease, Ethiopian wolf territories are largely stable, but packs can expand whenever the opportunity arises, such as when another pack disappears. The size of each territory correlates with the abundance of rodents, the number of wolves in a pack, and the survival of pups.
Ethiopian wolves rest together in the open at night, and congregate for greetings and border patrols at dawn, noon, and evening. They may shelter from rain under overhanging rocks and behind boulders. The species never sleeps in dens, and only uses them for nursing pups. When patrolling their territories, Ethiopian wolves regularly scent-mark and interact aggressively and vocally with other packs.
Breeding season is usually anytime from August through November. During breeding and pregnancy, the female’s coat changes to pale yellow and becomes woolly while the tail turns brownish and loses hair. Two to seven young are born in October through January, blind and deaf with a charcoal gray natal coat that has a buff patch in the chest and groin areas. Full, adult appearance is reached at two years as is sexual maturity.
The mating season usually takes place between August and November. Courtship involves the breeding male following the female closely. The breeding female only accepts the advances of the breeding male, or males from other packs. The gestation period is 60-62 days, with pups being born between October and December. Pups are born toothless and with their eyes closed, and are covered in a charcoal-grey coat with a buff patch on the chest and abdomen. Litters consist of two to six pups, which emerge from their den after three weeks, when the dark coat is gradually replaced with the adult colouration. By the age of five weeks, the pups feed on a combination of milk and solid food, and become completely weaned off milk at the age of 10 weeks to six months. All members of the pack contribute to protecting and feeding the pups, with subordinate females sometimes assisting the dominant female by suckling them.
Conservation Status and Threats
The Ethiopian wolf is considered a critically rare canid and one of the rarest African carnivores. The Ethiopian wolf has been considered rare since it was first recorded scientifically. The species likely has always been confined to Afroalpine habitats, so it was never widespread.
Population decline is a result of many factors: continuous loss of habitat due to agriculture (sustenance farming and overgrazing), traffic incidents and shootings, hybridization with domestic dogs, and disease. Threats include increasing pressure from expanding human populations, resulting in habitat degradation through overgrazing, and disease transference and interbreeding from free-ranging dogs.
Humans currently pose the largest threat to this species. Subsistence farming in Ethiopia’s highlands is overtaking large swaths of their range, restricting them to higher and higher altitudes.
Population decline of the Ethiopian wolf is increasingly being tied to diseases, particularly in the Bale Mountains. Since 2008, this Ethiopian wolf population has declined by 30 percent due to consecutive epizootics of rabies and canine distemper.
In historical times, all of the Ethiopian wolf's threats are both directly and indirectly human-induced, as the wolf's highland habitat, with its high annual rainfall and rich fertile soils, is ideal for agricultural activities. Rabies outbreaks, stemming from infected dogs, have killed many Ethiopian wolves over the 1990s and 2000s. Two well-documented outbreaks in Bale, one in 1991 and another in 2008-2009, resulted in the die-off or disappearance of 75% of known animals. Both incidents prompted reactive vaccinations in 2003 and 2008-2009, respectively.
Habitat loss in the Ethiopian highlands is directly linked to agricultural expansion into Afroalpine areas. In the northern highlands, human density is among the highest in Africa, with 300 people per km2 in some localities, with almost all areas below 3,700 m having been converted into barley fields. Suitable areas of land below this limit are under some level of protection, such as Guassa-Menz and the Denkoro Reserve, or within the southern highlands, such as the Arsi and Bale Mountains.
Some Ethiopian wolf populations, particularly those in North Wollo, show signs of high fragmentation, which is likely to increase with current rates of human expansion. The dangers posed by fragmentation include increased contact with humans, dogs, and livestock, and further risk of isolation and inbreeding in wolf populations.
Conservation Efforts
The Ethiopian wolf receives full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Conservation efforts include vaccination of both domestic dogs and wild wolves from rabies, sterilization of domestic dogs and hybrids, funding patrolling and maintenance of recovery areas, surveys and monitoring of populations, workshops to educate about Ethiopian wolves, the Bale Mountains Research Project begun in 1983, and the establishment of the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP) in 1995.
In response, the IUCN reclassified the species from endangered to critically endangered in 1994. The IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group advocated a three-front strategy of education, wolf population monitoring, and rabies control in domestic dogs.
The wolf's range is protected by community resource management, and the Guassa Community Conservation Area.
Hybridization with domestic dogs have been undertaken. Ethiopian wolf populations continues.
The Ethiopian wolf receives full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations. Vaccination of domestic dogs and wild wolves from rabies, and sterilization of domestic dogs and hybrids.
Key Differences Between Gray Wolf and Ethiopian Wolf
Here's a table summarizing the key differences between the Gray Wolf and the Ethiopian Wolf:
| Feature | Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) | Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis) |
|---|---|---|
| Size | Larger (2-3 feet at the shoulder) | Smaller (20-24 inches at the shoulder) |
| Weight | 70-110 pounds | 24-40 pounds |
| Speed | 40 mph (64.37 km/hr) | 37 mph (60 km/hr) |
| Habitat | Forests, grasslands, tundra, and deserts | Alpine grasslands and heathlands of the Ethiopian Highlands |
| Coloration | Range of colors including gray, black, and brown | Reddish-brown with white markings on throat and chest |
| Social Behavior | Highly social, lives in packs | More solitary, lives in small family groups |
| Conservation Status | Least Concern | Endangered |
| Diet | Opportunistic hunters, feed on deer, elk, small mammals | Primarily rodents and small mammals |
