The intersection of Ethiopian and Italian cultures is a complex tapestry woven from threads of colonial history, culinary adaptation, and enduring social dynamics. Italian colonial influence in the region began with an 1896 invasion that led to what is now Ethiopia ceding the then province of Eritrea in order to retain its independence. Italy formally colonized the province but stayed clear of Ethiopia’s capital until Mussolini’s rule, when the European nation returned to invade Ethiopia once more and occupy the country for five years. Disputes between Ethiopia and Eritrea, which are still ongoing despite many shared cultural markers (including, of course, food), are traced back to this Italy-centric betrayal.
This article delves into the multifaceted relationship between Ethiopia and Italy, examining the historical context, cultural exchanges, and the lasting impact of Italian colonialism on Ethiopian society.
Italian East Africa (1936-1941)
Historical Context: Italian Colonialism in Ethiopia
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Italy sought to expand its colonial empire, competing with other European powers for overseas territories. The 1880s were marked by the so-called "Scramble for Africa" and the Berlin Conference of 1884-85. When the Italians began to vie with the British and French for influence in the area. Asseb, a port near the southern entrance of the Red Sea, was bought by in March 1870 from the local Afar sultan, vassal to the Ethiopian Emperor, by an Italian company, which by 1890 led to the Italian colony of Eritrea being established. From then on, the Kingdom of Italy had traded and set up large tracts of farm land up to the borders with Ethiopia.
Conflicts between the two countries resulted in the Battle of Adwa in 1896, whereby the Ethiopians defeated Italy and remained independent, under the rule of Menelik II. At the time, Italy had only been unified for less than a few decades, and support for the war was minimal, especially among Southern Italians who were forcibly conscripted. Anti-war riots and demonstrations broke out across Italy and in the city of Pavia the population came out to blockade the railroad to prevent Italian troops from leaving for Ethiopia. Many Italian prisoners of war were treated very well, and many given over to noble families for work on their estates, while others with specialized skills were used in the construction of the newly formed capital of Addis Ababa, such as St George's Cathedral.
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Mussolini launched the Second Italo-Abyssinian War and invaded Ethiopia in October 1935. Victory was announced on 9 May 1936 and Mussolini declared the creation of the "Italian Empire". The Italians merged Eritrea, Italian Somalia, and newly occupied Ethiopia into Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, A.O.I.).
Since 1 June 1936 Italian Ethiopia was part of the newly created Italian East Africa, and was administratively composed of four governorates: Amhara, Harar, Galla-Sidamo and Scioa. The Scioa Governorate was originally known as the Addis Abeba Governorate, but enlarged in November 1938 with parts of the neighboring governorates of Harar, Galla-Sidamo, and Amhara.
Benito Mussolini
Following the Italian conquest, Ethiopian patriotic resistance continued in various parts of the country, particularly in the north and northwest. Since 28 September 1923, the Ethiopian Empire had been one of the member states of the League of Nations after its membership was supported by Mussolini. Following Italy's invasion, the League imposed economic sanctions on Italy, restricting trade in arms, rubber, and certain raw materials. However, the sanctions did not include oil, which was needed for Italy's war effort.
France and Britain, concerned about maintaining good relations with Italy against the growing German threat, hesitated to enforce harsher penalties (appeasement). In 1936, the League lifted the sanctions, effectively legitimizing Italy's conquest. The failure of the League to protect the Ethiopian Empire exposed its weaknesses, demonstrating its inability to deter aggression from major powers. This failure was a key moment in the lead-up to World War II, undermining the League's credibility as a force for global peace.
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How Ethiopia Defeated Italy & Remained Independent
Selassie was forced to flee to England, with Italian forces entering the capital city, Addis Ababa by 5 May 1936. Shortly after, Mussolini proclaimed an "Italian Empire of Ethiopia" and the Italian Empire on May 9, 1936.
Fascist Colonial Policy
Italian East Africa was administered by a single administrative unit, the Governo Generale dell'AOI (GGAOI), with the city of Addis Abeba as its capital. The colonial government was overseen by Ministry of Italian Africa (Italian: Ministro per l'Africa italiana) and was administered by a Viceroy of Ethiopia and Governor General of Italian East Africa, appointed by the Italian king. Victor Emmanuel III of Italy consequently adopted the title of "Emperor of Ethiopia".
Fascist colonial policy in Italian East Africa had a divide and conquer characteristic. In 1938 Mussolini enacted The Italian Racial Laws (Italian: Leggi Razziali), which institutionalized racial discrimination against Italian Jews and African inhabitants of the Italian Empire. These laws, and later a policy of pacification by apartheid, enforced segregation and reinforced racial hierarchies in Italy's colonies, further aligning Italian fascism with Nazi ideology.
Italians and Natives were racially segregated and lived in separate parts of towns. Interracial marriage was prohibited and so was having children between those of different races. However concubinages did exist. Those who were mixed-race could not get Italian citizenship or go to schools meant for Italians.
Italy's Fascist regime encouraged Italian peasants to colonize Ethiopia by setting up farms and small manufacturing businesses, this infrastructure development was part of a plan to bring half a million Italians to colonize the Ethiopian plateaus. However, few Italians came to the Ethiopian colony, with most going to Eritrea and Somalia.
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Infrastructure Development
The Italians made a significant effort to build roads in the territory and most of the money given to the territory by the government for "civilian works" between 1937 and 1941 were for building roads. Dams and hydroelectric plants were also built. Italians built additional airports and in 1936 started the Linea dell'Impero, a flight connecting Addis Ababa to Rome. The line was opened after the Italian conquest of Ethiopia and was followed by the first air links with the AOI governorates.
900 km of railways were reconstructed or initiated (like the railway between Addis Ababa and Assab). The Djibouti-Addis Ababa Railway, the most significant railway in Italian East Africa, was acquired following the Italian conquest of Ethiopia in 1936. Until 1935, steam trains operated the 784 km route, taking about 36 hours to travel between Addis Ababa and Djibouti. In 1938, Italy introduced four high-capacity "Type 038" rail-cars, derived from the Fiat ALn56 model, increasing speeds to 70 km/h and reducing travel time to 18 hours. These diesel railcars remained in use until the mid-1960s.
Linea dell'Impero
Ethiopia has the largest concentration of Italian schools and cultural institutes in Africa (such as the Scuola Statale Italiana of Addis Abeba), which foster and promote Italian and Ethiopian culture and are free to the public. The Italian firm Salini Costruttori was chosen by the Ethiopian government to design and build the Millennium or Renaissance Dam on the Blue Nile river which when completed will be the largest dam and hydroelectric plant in Africa.
The Italian-Ethiopian War and Chemical Warfare
During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Italian forces used between 300 and 500 tons of mustard gas (yperite) against both military and civilian targets, despite being a signatory to the 1925 Geneva Protocol banning chemical warfare. This gas, produced during World War I, was a decisive factor in the conflict, with historian Walter Laqueur estimating that up to one-third of Ethiopian casualties resulted from chemical weapons.
Although Italy justified its use of gas by citing the execution of pilot Tito Minniti, Mussolini had authorized gas attacks two months before Minniti's death and later expanded their use on a massive scale. Mustard gas was delivered via bombs and gas shells, sprayed from aircraft onto Ethiopian soldiers, villages, and even Red Cross medical units. The attacks, which the Italians attempted to keep secret, were exposed by the International Red Cross and foreign observers.
World War II and the End of Italian East Africa
On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France, which made Italian military forces in Libya a threat to Egypt and those in the Italian East Africa a danger to the British and French territories in the Horn of Africa. Italian belligerence also closed the Mediterranean to Allied merchant ships and endangered British supply routes along the coast of East Africa, the Gulf of Aden, Red Sea and the Suez Canal.
By early 1941, Italian forces had been largely pushed back from Kenya and Sudan. On 6 April 1941, Addis Ababa was occupied by the 11th (African) Division, which received the surrender of the city. The remnants of the Italian forces in the Italian East Africa surrendered after staging a last stand at the Battle of Gondar in November 1941.
In January 1942, with the final official surrender of the Italians, the British signed an interim Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement with Selassie, acknowledging Ethiopian sovereignty. In the peace treaty of February 1947, Italy officially renounced sovereignty over its African colonies of Libya, Eritrea and Somalia (art. 23) and recognized the independence of Ethiopia (art. Eritrea was placed under British military administration and became an autonomous part of Ethiopia in 1952.
Lasting Cultural Impact: The Case of Lasagna
One of the most visible and delicious examples of this cultural fusion is the presence of lasagna in habesha celebrations. Lasagna, then, is a curious dish to rally around. It’s tempting to make jokes about the ongoing effects of Italian colonial rule, to wonder if our palates are betraying us. But the lasagna served at habesha gatherings is a kind of culinary rebellion, a testament to the transformative connections within our communities.
Like any (post-)colonial people, both professional and amateur habesha culinarians have transformed the colonizing nation’s food into something new. Where the original dish combines its eponymous noodles with acidic tomato sauces and soft ricotta, Ethiopian and Eritrean pair the noodles with pungent aromatics, piquant seasonings, and meats common to the region. The sauce begins with a generous portion of garlic, onions, and green onions. Fresh ground beef is typically used instead of Italian sausage, which pork-averse Ethiopians and Eritreans, many of whom adhere to Orthodox Christian or Islamic dietary guidelines, tend to avoid in cooking. The addition of berbere, the countries’ most famous spice blend of dried chiles, fenugreek, garlic, and cardamom, is not uncommon.
Ethiopian Lasagna
Even with slight tweaks-berbere quantity, bechamel presence, and the like-there’s something distinctive about the dish as made by Ethiopian and Eritrean home cooks. Something unmistakably warm. Lasagna, as prepared by aunts, mothers, and grandmothers all throughout the Ethiopian and Eritrean diaspora, is the perfect addition to any traditional dinner spread.
Conclusion
The Ethiopian-Italian cultural mix is a complex and evolving phenomenon. While the legacy of Italian colonialism is fraught with challenges, it has also fostered unique cultural fusions. The story of Ethiopian-Italian relations is a testament to the enduring power of cultural exchange and adaptation.
