Contact between Egypt and Sudan goes back to trade and conflict during ancient times, with ancient trade routes dating back to 4000 B.C. The ancient Kingdom of Kush in northern Sudan and ancient Egypt engaged in trade, warfare, and cultural exchange.
During the New Kingdom of Egypt, Egypt conquered further south into Kushite lands. Later, the Kushites would conquer Egypt, founding the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt. Afterwards, Egypt would fall to the Persians, Greeks, and later Romans. During this time, Christianity spread to Egypt and Sudan.
Egypt was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in 652 AD, but the caliphate failed to spread into Sudan. A peace treaty was signed between Muslim Egypt and Christian Sudan called the Baqt, lasting centuries.
While Egypt was a province of the Ottoman Empire, Egypt conquered Sudan, led by the Ottoman Governor Muhammad Ali Pasha, founding the city Khartoum. After the Egyptian-Ottoman Wars from 1831 to 1841, Egypt became an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, governed by the Muhammad Ali Dynasty. During this period, British involvement in Egypt grew.
An Anglo-French debt commission was formed that assumed responsibility for managing Egypt's fiscal affairs. Isma'il Pasha was eventually forced to abdicate in favor of his more pro-British son, Tawfiq Pasha. The British administrator Charles Gordon was appointed Governor-General of Sudan. A Sudanese religious leader Muhammad Ahmad declared himself the Mahdi and revolted against Egyptian rule.
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Egypt, with the support of the British, failed to suppress the uprising, and attempted to evacuate Sudan. Though Gordon was to organize the evacuation of Sudan, he found himself in the siege of Khartoum by Mahdist forces, eventually leading to his death. The Mahdist State continued to exist until 1899, when it was defeated by an Anglo-Egyptian force, establishing Anglo-Egyptian rule until 1956.
In 1820, Egypt conquered Sudan, and continued to occupy the country, later as a condominium under the British, until Sudan declared independence in 1956. Sudan later joined the Arab League, of which Egypt is a founding member. Relations between successive governments in Egypt and Sudan have warmed and cooled relations at various times.
The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium
The Condominium Agreement of January 19, 1899 provided for a joint administration of the Sudan by the British and Egyptian governments. Yet it was clear from the outset that Egypt's part of this administration was to be purely nominal. The supreme civil and military command of the Sudan was vested in the governor-general, who was nominated by the British government. Thus his appointment by Khedivial decree had few practical implications. It is, therefore, no wonder that during the whole period of the Condominium, all the governor-generals were British, and owed allegiance to the British government.
Green: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Light green: Sarra Triangle ceded to Italian Libya in 1934. Dark grey: Egypt and the United Kingdom.
While Sudan was officially a condominium between the governments of Egypt and United Kingdom, divided from Egypt along the 22nd parallel, in reality the British Governor General effectively ruled Sudan as a colony. After the Egyptian revolution of 1919 and declaration of Egyptian independence in 1922, Egyptian nationalists demanded Egyptian authority over Sudan, citing historical connections with 'Unity in the Nile Valley', but British government involvement remained, especially after the assassination of Governor-General Sir Lee Stack, after which Egypt was forced to retreat all forces from Sudan.
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Egyptian nationalism during this time believed that Sudan rightfully belonged to Egypt, though Sudanese revolutionaries such as the White Flag League supported an independent Sudan. While the Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936 allowed Egypt to host troops in Sudan, the Sudan remained a de facto British colony.
On January 25, 1947, the British government informed Egypt that it intended to prepare the Sudan for self-government, though Egypt opposed self-government for the Sudan. The Egyptian government sought the removal of British troops in Sudan, and because of the historical connection between Egypt and Sudan, Sudan should be granted self-government under a political union with Egypt.
Anti-British resentment in Egypt continued to rise, and on 16 October 1951, the Egyptian government abrogated the agreements underpinning the condominium, and declared that Egypt and Sudan were legally united as the Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan, with King Farouk as the King of Egypt and the Sudan. However, King Farouk was overthrown during the 1952 Egyptian Revolution by the Free Officers Movement, a group of army officers led by Mohamed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser, declaring the Egypt a republic in on June 18, 1953. Gamal Abdel Nasser was able to politically outmaneuver Naguib, becoming president of Egypt in 1956.
Post-Independence Relations
Sudan under Azhari had cordial relations with Egypt, until disagreements in 1958 over the border and water resources. Nasser's Egypt later united with Syria, forming the United Arab Republic (U.A.R), while a coup overthrew Azhari's government in that same year. Relations with the UAR and the new government under Prime Minister Abdallah Khalil improved, with both governments signing an agreement over the Nile's water in 1959.
In 1969, a conspiracy of Sudanese officers overthrew the Sudanese government, led by Colonel Jaafar Nimeiry. Sadat's successor, Hosni Mubarak visited Sudan in 1985 after a military coup overthrew Nimeiry that year. Nimeiry lived in exile in Egypt until 1999.
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On 15 April 2023, war broke out between Sudanese Armed Forces and Rapid Support Forces. Egypt had chosen the side of the Sudanese military by supplying soldiers and warplanes. Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi had a close tie with Sudan's military leader Abdel Fattah al-Burhan. In early 2023, Egypt started a political initiative in Cairo to resolve SAF and RSF differences, but the initiative was in the favor of Sudanese military. As the fighting started Hemedti’s forces captured 27 Egyptian military men.
Sudan, which shares a 1,276 km border with Egypt, has been more than just a neighbor; it has been a historical partner through multiple eras. From the Ottoman-Egyptian rule to Sudanese independence, the relations between the two countries have been deeply intertwined. As such, any instability in Sudan directly affects Egypt's national security and vital resources, particularly Nile water.
Prior to the outbreak of the war between the Sudanese army leader, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and his former deputy, the leader of the RSF, Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemedti), Egypt and Sudan conducted joint military exercises and coordinated their stances regarding Ethiopia’s Grand Renaissance Dam on the Nile. In March 2021, for example, the Egyptian army announced that Egyptian and Sudanese forces had conducted a series of military exercises as part of the joint maneuvers "Nile Eagles 2." This took place amid heightened tensions between Addis Ababa, Cairo, and Khartoum over the Grand Renaissance Dam issue.
The Current Crisis
Since April 2023, Sudan has been experiencing a severe military crisis that began with escalating tensions between the SAF, led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and the RSF, led by Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemedti). At the time of the conflict’s onset, the Egyptian army had forces stationed at the northern Merowe base, highlighting Egypt’s concerns for the stability of its southern neighbor. Yet these tensions escalated into an armed conflict that caused significant destruction in the capital, Khartoum, and other cities, along with a worsening humanitarian crisis.
While Egypt’s official stance was to maintain neutrality, tensions between Egypt and the RSF surfaced almost immediately. That April, the RSF released a video showing captured Egyptian soldiers amidst the fighting between the Sudanese army and the RSF. The soldiers were later handed over to the Egyptian government through the International Red Cross.
Hemedti’s forces accused Egyptian aircraft of bombing RSF camps and, in a video, Hemedti accused the Egyptian army of attacking RSF positions in Jabal Moya, Sennar State. However, in September, the Sudanese army denied acquiring K-8 aircraft from Egypt, asserting that it had owned squadrons of this aircraft model for over 20 years.
In response, the Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement denying the Egyptian army’s involvement in the ongoing battles in Sudan and called on the international community to verify the evidence supporting Hemedti's claims. The statement emphasized that "Egypt is committed to the security, stability, and unity of Sudan, both in land and people, and will spare no effort to provide all possible support to Sudan in addressing the severe damages caused by the war." Some observers argue that the RSF’s accusations against Egypt are part of Hemedti’s attempts to justify the setbacks his forces have suffered, especially after the Sudanese army regained strength and launched successful strikes in areas held by the RSF.
In the aftermath of this early incident, Cairo has attempted to avoid taking sides. Even when RSF militias stormed the Merowe base, where Egyptian forces were stationed as part of joint exercises before the war and announced the capture of Egyptian personnel, Cairo opted for diplomatic pathways to resolve the crisis.
Cairo participated in negotiations mediated by the United States and Saudi Arabia, which began shortly after the war erupted in April 2023, aiming to bridge gaps between the two sides and end the fighting. In July 2023, Cairo invited neighboring heads of state to a summit, and in July 2024, it invited Sudanese civil and political forces to meet in Cairo to reach an agreement to end the war. Egyptian Foreign Minister Badr Abdel Atty stated during the conference of Sudanese civil and political forces that any political solution “must be based on a purely Sudanese vision, without external pressure,” while emphasizing the importance of “the unity of the army and its role in protecting the nation.”
In October, statements from the RSF in Sudan again brought Egypt’s role in the country into focus. The RSF launched a sharp attack on Egypt and, for the first time, claimed the existence of “Egyptian prisoners” who allegedly participated alongside the SAF in the ongoing war.
The RSF statement alleged that "official Egypt has not altered its stance in favor of military institutions and regimes in general, falling into contradiction by supporting the Sudanese army, which has been completely hijacked by the Muslim Brotherhood in Sudan." The statement added, "The Egyptian government has never ceased providing military support to the army, including weapons, ammunition, aircraft bombs, training, and technical, political, diplomatic, and media support."
The Impact of the Nile River in Ancient Egypt
Seeking an End to the Conflict As the political landscape has shifted dramatically in the Middle East, marked by the collapse of the last Ba'athist regime in the region (Bashar al-Assad's regime in Syria) and with attention shifting to the larger conflict between Iran and Israel ahead of President Trump’s return to the White House on January 20, Sudan’s fierce and ongoing conflict between the SAF and the RSF militias shows no signs of reaching a conclusion.
Research conducted by four American universities estimated that approximately 130,000 Sudanese have died, directly and indirectly, during the current war, which has been ongoing for 18 months. The research considered the current conflict in Sudan as one of the deadliest globally, but it remains among the least covered by media, despite its alarmingly high casualty numbers.
The repercussions of the war have placed enormous pressure on Cairo. The influx of Sudanese migrants and refugees has strained Egypt’s limited resources, caused numerous societal crises, and escalated anti-immigrant rhetoric. Additionally, there are security concerns about the infiltration of criminal elements and human trafficking networks across Egypt’s borders. Sudan had also served as a haven for members of Islamic groups who fled Egypt after 2013, as Bashir’s regime provided them with a safe refuge. Moreover, Ethiopian and regional interventions supporting the RSF have added further burdens on Cairo.
The situation has been further complicated by regional and international interventions in Sudan. Reports indicate Russian support for the RSF through Wagner mercenaries, while the United States recently accused Russia of fueling the Sudanese conflict and supporting the warring parties. Iran reportedly supports the Sudanese army, while Ethiopia, which remains in tension with Egypt over the Grand Renaissance Dam, offers diplomatic backing to the RSF.
This dynamic places Cairo in a precarious position. The continuation of the war threatens to escalate security and humanitarian issues on Egypt’s southern border at a time when the country is already grappling with significant challenges, including the Gaza war and instability in Libya, which border Egypt to the east and west, respectively. Allowing Sudan to fall under the control of externally-backed tribal militias represents a direct threat to Egyptian national security. The presence of extremist elements and armed militias near Egypt's borders heightens security risks, especially with the possibility of infiltration by criminal networks and human traffickers.
On the Sudanese army's side, its alliance with Islamic groups fighting alongside it has raised concerns. Reports of Iranian support, particularly after Burhan's visit to Tehran, underline the involvement of both Russia and Iran in backing different sides of the Sudanese conflict.
Measures Against the RSF
The United States has taken an increasingly firm stance against the RSF and its leader, Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemedti), due to severe human rights violations committed by these forces. Secretary of State Antony Blinken declared that the RSF and allied Arab militias had committed crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing. He affirmed the United States’ commitment to holding those responsible for these atrocities accountable. sanctions were also imposed on Hemedti himself. Congress adopted a resolution classifying the RSF's and allied militias' violations in Darfur as "genocide," calling for accountability for those responsible.
And in December 2024, reports indicated that the Biden administration was preparing to impose additional sanctions on the RSF, its leader Hemedti, and affiliated companies as part of its efforts to hold those involved in ongoing violations in Sudan accountable. position to a significant extent. policy. While it remains to be seen which direction the Trump administration will take in this respect, the stage is set for further punitive actions should the new administration choose to do so.
Cairo’s Dilemma
Cairo, which has taken a cautious approach to avoid being drawn into the war, reportedly provides logistical support to the Sudanese army. Yet with this strategy, Egypt finds itself caught between "a rock and a hard place." The continuation of the war exacerbates the humanitarian disaster in the south. At the same time, Sudan’s fall into the hands of unruly tribal militias backed by adversarial forces poses a severe threat to Egypt on all levels and will amplify the regional challenges Egypt faces. Meanwhile, within the Sudanese army, cracks have appeared in its alliance with Islamic factions, evident in the recent verbal conflicts between Muslim Brotherhood leaders and Burhan.
Cairo should take bolder steps to support the Sudanese army and ensure the cessation of regional support for the RSF. Strengthening coordination with the United States and European countries would be essential to impose stricter sanctions on armed militias, providing greater leverage towards ending the conflict.
Egypt can further enhance its cooperation with neighboring countries-such as Saudi Arabia and the UAE-to coordinate regional efforts to stabilize Sudan, though these efforts will undoubtedly have their own complications. In the event the war ends, Egypt can play a key role in rebuilding Sudan and ensuring the stability of its political and security institutions.
While Egypt finds itself facing tough choices in addressing the Sudanese crisis, and despite the cautious approach it has adopted so far, decisive intervention may be necessary to protect Egyptian and regional interests.
Sudanese refugees arrive at the Qustal border crossing between Sudan and Egypt on May 5.
ASWAN, Egypt - Sudan and Egypt are neighbors with deep ties and interwoven histories, and they share a common lifeline: the Nile River. So integral is the Nile to life in these countries that Egyptians and Sudanese commonly refer to themselves as abna' el-neel, children of the Nile. Egypt, a country of more than 100 million people, includes than 4 million Sudanese migrants. Its proximity and familiarity has made Egypt the most-sought refuge for people fleeing the fighting in Sudan that erupted in mid-April between the Sudanese armed forces and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces militias.
The exodus of more than 210,000 people from Sudan to Egypt in the weeks since highlights the deep ties that bind the two countries, as well as Egypt's mixed legacy in Sudan and the challenges refugees face. Until recently, Egypt had been granting visitor visas to Sudanese at the border that could be extended. (Those who register with the U.N. refugee agency may eventually be granted official refugee status). Over the past week, however, Egypt confirmed it had imposed a new measure requiring all Sudanese to obtain visas from Egyptian consulates before they can enter the country, expanding a rule that had already been in place for Sudanese males of a certain age.
Egypt's Foreign Ministry insists the new visa requirement is not intended to prevent or limit the numbers of Sudanese citizens arriving in the country, and says the entry requirements are in response to the detection of some forged visas on the Sudanese side of the border. The decision comes as Egypt faces economic headwinds. Inflation is rising, particularly for basic food items. The country is struggling to feed its poor amid an economic crisis that's seen the local currency steadily plummet since March 2022.
Ties between Egypt and Sudan run deep
The first major city Sudanese fleeing the war pass through in Egypt is Aswan. Here, families wade near the Nile River's banks to cool down as the sun shimmers off its dark ripples. Small motorboats in this region, known as Nubia, blast Sudanese songs and beats as they cruise along the Nile, making this part of Egypt momentarily indistinguishable from parts of Sudan. That's because for many people in Aswan, there is little distinction between "us" and "them." Many identify as Nubian, in addition to being Egyptian. The region's tribes span southern Egypt and parts of Sudan. For several decades in the 8th century B.C.E., the ancient Kush Dynasty of Nubia ruled over parts of modern-day Sudan and all of Egypt. Its rulers are commonly referred to as the Black Pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty.
"The relationship between Sudan and Egypt is not just about water, but blood," says Ibrahim Mudasir, whose father is Sudanese and whose mother is Egyptian Nubian. Mudasir runs an organization that helps Nubians in Egypt. He came to Aswan from Cairo in May to help Sudanese families fleeing the conflict. Nubians in this region speak the Kenzi dialect of the Nubian language, in addition to Arabic.
A Nubian village in Aswan is popular among tourists, including Egyptian visitors from Cairo and northern Nile Delta cities. Nubian homes and buildings have domed roofs and bold patterns painted on their doors and walls. Nubians have been in this stretch of land for thousands of years. The Nile has served as a lifeline for its traders, herders, farmers and rulers. Their monuments, including pyramids, still exist in Sudan.
Cairo's historical dominance - its Pharaonic civilization, its control over Khartoum during different periods of the 19th century and its attempts in recent years to influence Sudan's political transition after the country's 2019 uprising and ouster of longtime ruler Omar al-Bashir - has left a mixed, sometimes bitter legacy in Sudan. Many Sudanese, though, continue to see Egypt as a second home. People from both countries speak Arabic and are largely Muslim. Many Sudanese have vacationed in Aswan or studied in Cairo. Sudan's top military brass, including Sudan's de facto leader and the head of its military, Gen. Abdel-Fattah Burhan, have trained in Egypt's military academies.
Calm in Sudan is in Egypt's interests. Any instability poses risks to Egypt's national security. Having an allied government in Khartoum is important to Cairo, particularly to advocate against diminishing water rights as a result of a massive dam Ethiopia is building further south. Most of Egypt's residents live along a narrow strip of land around the Nile's banks, relying on its waters stretching from the southernmost tip of Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea in the north.
Many Sudanese find their own way once they arrive in Egypt, renting apartments in Cairo and receiving support from Egyptian charities, volunteers and the large Sudanese diaspora already there. They often arrive with just a few suitcases. Most of their belongings and money are still back in Sudan, where there are widespread cash shortages and limited banking services.
Yasser Abuelgasim fled Sudan with his wife and newborn son in the first days of the war. They've settled for now in a rented apartment in Cairo, in a neighborhood where power cuts are not uncommon. He's angry that after saving up enough to finally start a family of his own at the age of 50, this war erupted and destroyed the life he'd built in Khartoum. Neither the military nor the paramilitary forces represent the people of Sudan, he says.
"It's a military killing its people," he says. "In the end, we the citizens are the victims."
Last month, Sameh Hassan traveled on his own to Aswan to see how he could help. The Egyptian travel operator living in the Red Sea city of Sharm el-Sheikh joined other volunteers passing out water bottles to people crossing the hot, dusty border separating the two countries. He assisted Sudanese seeking temporary shelter in a Sudanese-run school in Aswan and met with officials in the city to coordinate efforts.
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